LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


^I 

...k, 


Class 


OF 


**  •« 


THE 
!P  R  j±  C  T  I  C  A.  lu 

LAND   DRAINER 

Jl  fmtis*  flw  Draining 


IN    WHICH    Ti 


MOST  APPROVED  SYSTEMS  OF  DRAINAGE 


SCIENTIFIC    PRINCIPLES    ON  WHICH  THEY    DEPEND,  ARE  EXPLAINED, 
AND    THEIR    COMPARATIVE    MERITS    DISCUSSED. 


FULL  DIRECTIONS  FOR  CUTTING  AND  MAKING   DRAINS,  AND  REMARKS  UPON 

THE   VARIOUS   MATERIALS   OF   WHICH   TFJEY 

MAY   BE   CONSTRUCTED. 


OF  THE  T3     V        R  M"     TJ 

UNIVERSITY    1 

LANDSCAPE  GARDENKR. 

OF 


NEW   YORK: 
C.     M.     SAXTON     &     COMPANY 

AGRICULTURAL    BOOK     PUBLISHERS. 
1855. 


o. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  In  the  Year  1855,  by 

(J.   M.    S  A  XT  ON  &   CO., 
In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 


6.  <®.  Icukws,  printer  &  Htcreotnper, 

20  &  28  FRAXKFOKT  STBKET. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

THE  PHYSICAL  LAWS  OX  WHICH  THE  DRAINAGE  OF  LAND  DEPENDS.  .       11 


PART   I. 

PRINCIPLES  AND  SYSTEMS  OF  DRAINAGE 21 

CHAPTER   I. 

EXAMINATION  OP  LAND   PRELIMINARY  TO   ITS    DRAINAGE — DIFFERENT 
GEOLOGICAL  FORMATIONS,  AND  TUB  INDICATIONS  THEY  PRESENT.  .       21 

CHAPTER  II. 

STATEMENT   OF  THE    DIFFERENT  SYSTEMS   OF   DRAINAGE,  AND  THEIR 

RELATIVE  MODES  OF  OPERATION  AND  COMPARATIVE  MERITS 30 

CHAPTER  III. 

DEEP    DRAINAGE   EXPLAINED — ITS   USE   IN   CUTTING   OFF  SPRINGS  IN 

VARIOUS   CONDITIONS  OF  WET  LASD 34 

CO 


202372 


Vlll  .          CONTEXTS. 

CHAPTER   IV. 

FREQUENT  OR  THOROUGH  DRAINAGE  EXPLAINED — DIRECTION  OP 
DRAINS  WITH  REFERENCE  TO  LAND  WITH  SLOPING  AND  LEVEL  SUR- 
FACES— SKETCH  OF  FIELD  OF  DIVERSIFIED  SLOPE  WELL  DRAINED — 
THE  FALL  OF  DRAINS  IN  RESPECT  TO  THK1R  CONSTRUCTION — DEPTH 
AND  SIZE  OF  DRAINS— DISTANCE  APART  AT  WHICH  TO  CONSTRUCT 
THEM — REMARKS  ON  THE  DISPUTE  RELATIVE  TO  THE  DEPTH  AND 
DISTANCES  OF  DRAINS 48 

CHAPTEH  V. 

SURFACE   DRAINAGE    EXPLAINED.  .  73 


PART    II. 


PRACTICAL  DIRECTIONS  FOR  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  DRAINAGE  AND 
OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  TOOLS  AND  MATERIALS  APPLICABLE  TO  THE 
PURPOSE 76 

CHAPTER  VI. 

LEVELLING 77 

CHAPTER   VII. 

DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  DRAINS    DESCRIBED 82 

CHAPTER  VIIT. 

MATERIALS  ADAPTED  TO  THE   CONSTRUCTION   OF  DRAINS 93 

CHAPTER    IX. 

THE   MODE   OF   CUTTING    DRAINS..  99 


CONTENTS.  ix 

CHAPTER   X. 

BUILDING  TUK  CONDUITS  OR  DUCTS  FOR  SECURING  THE  FREE  PASSAGE 

OF  WATER  THROUGH   THE  DRAINS.  .  .    130 


CHAPTER   XI. 

FILLING  UP  THE  CUTTINGS  FOR  THE  DRAINS  AFTER  THE  CONDUITS  OR 

DUCTS   ARE    CONSTRUCTED 142 

CHAPTER   XII. 

STOPPAGE   OF   DRAINS 155 

CHAPTER   XIII. 

SYPHON  DRAINAGE— MR.  J.  B.  DENTON  ON  THE  SUBSURFACE  LINE  OF 
MOISTURE — COST  OF  DRAINAGE — MISCELLANEOUS  MATTERS — TABLE 
FOR  CALCULATING  THE  CAPACITY  OF  DRAINS  AND  DITCHES.  .  .  167 


UPON  few  subjects  have  opposite  opinions  been  ad- 
vanced with  greater  confidence,  and  adhered  to  with 
greater  pertinacity  by  those  who  maintained  them, 
than  upon  the  question  of  the  best  method  of  draining 
land. 

Whilst  this  may  appear  extraordinary  to  those  who 
have  but  little  acquaintance  with  the  subject,  it  is  by  no 
means  so  to  those  who  have  given  due  consideration  to 
its  theoretical  principles,  and  who  have  had  some  prac- 
tical experience  in  draining.  The  causes  of  these  great 
differences  existing  between  men  of  unquestionable  in- 
tegrity, talent  and  experience,  may  be  traced  to  the 
diversity  of  natural  causes  in  operation  which  render 
drainage  necessary  ;  and  in  the  various  methods  which 
have  been  found  by  some  to  succeed,  and  by  others 
to  fail,  in  situations  supposed  to  be  similar,  but  in 
reality  differing  in  geological  formation,  and  in  exter- 
nal relations. 

.  With  the  knowledge  of  these  facts,  the  Author  of 
the  following  pages  has  thought  he  would  best  serve 
his  readers  by  placing  before  them,  in  something  of  a 


8  PREFACE. 

systematic  form,  the  principal  methods  of  draining 
that  are  considered  most  desirable;  some  for  their 
permanent  as  well  as  efficient  character,  others  for 
their  less  laborious  and  less  costly  nature.  He  has 
rather  sought  to  explain  various  systems,  and  the 
mode  of  carrying  them  out,  at  the  same  time  pointing 
out  their  comparative  advantages,  than  to  advance  any 
pet  system  of  his  own.  He  has,  consequently,  availed 
himself  largely  of  the  labors  of  other  authors  of  known 
experience  and  scientific  attainments,  and  he  does  not, 
therefore,  claim  for  himself  any  originality  of  princi- 
ple or  practice ;  yet  he  hopes  that  he  has  explained 
the  principles  upon  which  drainage  should  be  con- 
ducted, and  how  they  apply  to  the  various  systems  for 
effecting  it.  And  as  regards  the  practical  part  of  the 
subject,  he  trusts  that  the  Farmer  and  the  Horticul- 
turist will  find  information  in  this  volume,  in  a  con- 
densed and  useful  form,  (which  they  must  otherwise 
seek  for  in  voluminous  Agricultural  works,)  combined 
with  observations  arising  from  some  experience  in  the 
subject  of  which  it  treats. 

Everybody  knows  that  water  runs  down  hill ;  but 
the  Author  begs  permission  to  caution  the  reader 
against  the  assumption  that,  because  he  knows  that,  he 
therefore  has  nothing  to  learn  as  regards  the  prelimi- 
nary knowledge  which  is  requisite  before  he  begins  to 
drain  his  land.  The  want  of  such  knowledge  is  the 
too  fertile  cause  of  great  loss  of  time,  labor  and  money. 


PREFACE.  9 

The  Author,  therefore,  strongly  recommends  the  peru- 
sal of  the  few  pages  of  the  Introduction  to  those  who 
have  not  paid  attention  to  the  subject  which  they  dis- 
cuss, before  the  practical  operations  of  Land  Drainage 
are  attempted. 

Of  the  utility  of  Drainage  it  is  needless  in  the  pres- 
ent day  to  speak.  But  could  Farmers  and  Land- 
owners have  the  benefit  of  but  a  tenth  part  of  the  ex- 
perience that  has  fallen  to  the  lot  of  the  Author,  in 
the  course  of  his  professional  duties  in  the  improve- 
ment of  land,  he  is  certain  that  the  extent  to  which 
Drainage  would  be  carried  would  only  be  limited  by 
the  extent  of  each  man's  property. 

YORK,  March,  1855. 


. — The  Author  may  be  consulted  professionally  on  the  sub- 
ject of  Drainage,  by  addressing  a  note  to  him,  Box  3292,  Post 
Office,  New  York,  or  to  the  Publishers,  No.  152  Fulton  street, 
New  York. 

1* 


IISTTRODUCTIOISr. 


THE   PHYSICAL   LAWS  ON   WHICH    THE    DRAINAGE    OF 
LAND  DEPENDS. 

THE  object  sought  by  the  drainage  of  land,  being  to 
remove  water  from  it,  it  will  be  well  to  consider,  1st. 
The  sources  from  which  the  water  which  we  wish  to  drain 
away  is  derived;  and  2d.  The  natural  laws  to  which 
water  when  still,  and  when  in  motion,  is  subject. 

The  operation  of  heat  upon  the  waters  of  the  ocean 
and  of  the  land  is  continuously  producing  evaporation, 
by  means  of  which  large  quantities  of  water  are  carried, 
in  the  shape  of  vapor,  into  the  elevated  parts  of  the 
atmosphere,  and  are  there  retained  in  an  invisible  form 
by  the  agency  of  electricity.  When  a  change  takes 
place  in  the  electric  equilibrium,  clouds  are  formed 
from  the  water  so  raised,  which,  becoming  subject  to 
the  laws  of  physical  attraction,  are  thereby  brought 
in  contact  with  the  mountains,  and  more  elevated  parts 
of  the  earth's  surface.  Giving  out  part  of  their  heat, 
these  clouds  descend  again  upon  the  earth  in  the  form 
of  rain,  fog,  or  snow,  according  to  the  temperature,  and 
other  meteorological  conditions  of  the  atmosphere. 
Once  again  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth,  the  water 
becomes  subject  to  its  natural  laws,  and  it  sinks  into  the 
earth,  runs  down  the  hill-side,  or  lays  upon  the  surface, 

n 


12"  INTRODUCTION. 

as  it  may  happen  from  the  physical  condition  of  the 
particular  place  on  which  it  chances  to  fall.  The  water 
which  sinks  downward  through  the  soil,  and  that  which 
is  carried  through  the  interstices  of  rocks  and  mineral 
strata,  obedient  to  the  laws  of  gravity  and  capillary 
attraction,  is  distributed  beneath  the  ground  to  a  greater 
or  less  depth,  until  it  meets  with  strata  that  it  cannot 
penetrate ;  then  it  flows  along  such  strata,  or  accumu- 
lates in  large  bodies,  either  in  hollow  basins  or  diffused 
through  extensive  tracts  of  the  subsoil,  until  it  finds 
vent  upon  the  surface  in  the  shape  of  springs ;  or,  in 
other  cases,  by  spreading  over  a  large  mass  of  soil  it  is 
held  in  suspension  by  it  in  the  same  manner  as  by  a 
sponge.  The  land  so  saturated  becomes  unfit  for  the 
purposes  of  the  husbandman. 

The  natural  laws  by  which  water  is  governed  are 
embraced  by  the  two  branches  of  science,  called  hydro- 
statics, which  treats  of  water  in  a  state  of  rest,  and 
hydraulics,  which  treats  of  water  when  in  motion. 
It  is  only  requisite  for  the  present  purpose  to  state 
shortly  some  of  the  laws  of  these  sciences,  without 
presenting,  except  so  far  as  is  necessary  for  explana- 
tion, the  proofs  by  which  the  laws  themselves  are  evi- 
denced : 

FIRST. —  Water  and  all  fluids,  both  liquid  and  gaseous, 
when  at  rest,  press  equally  in  all  directions.  This 
results  from  the  extreme  minuteness  of  the  par- 
ticles. 

SECOND. — The  pressure  of  a  column  ot  water  upon  its 
base  depends  upon  its  height  and  the  area  of  the  base  ; 
and  not  upon  the  thickness  or  width  of  the  column. 


I XTROD  r  CTIOX.  13 

Suppose  a  and  b,  Fig.  1,  to  represent  two  vessels 
of  equal  height  and  capacity.  The  pressure  upon 
the  bottom  of  a  will  be  much  less  than  that  on  the 
bottom  of  b.  The  pressure  on  «,  at  the  bottom, 

FIG.  1. 


will  be  equal  to  a  column  of  water  represented  by 
the  dotted  lines,  but  the  pressure  on  b  at  the  bot- 
tom will  be  equal  to  a  column  of  water  of  the  size 
of  the  whole  base  of  b. 

The  pressure  of  water  in  proportion  to  its  height 
upon  a  level  base  is  exemplified  at  c,  Fig.  1.  If  a 
vessel  of  water  be  supposed  to  be  divided  into  four, 
or  any  number  of  equal  parts  vertically,  the  press- 
ure upon  any  part  is  represented  by  the  sum  of 
the  aggregate  addition  of  the  parts  above.  Thus, 
if  the  divisions  are  one  foot  apart,  the  pressure  at 
the  first  division  will  be  equal  to  a  column  of 
water  one  foot  high,  at  the  second  division  to  a 
column  two  feet  high,  and  so  on. 

THIRD. —  Water  at  rest,  and  exposed  on  all  parts  of  its 
surface  to  an  equal  atmospheric  pressure,  always 
stands  at  a  uniform  level,  whatever  be  its  shape  or 
magnitude.  In  Fig.  2,  the  size  of  the  two  parts  of 
the  vessel  are  very  different ;  but  if  water  is  poured 
into  either  end,  and  the  surface  of  the  water  is  left 
exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  it  will  rise  in  both 


INTRODUCTION. 


sides  to  the  same  level.  It  is  this  law  (in  connec- 
tion with,  the  law  of  gravity)  that  causes  rivers  to 
flow  and  water  to  percolate  through  the  earth. 

From  this  property  of  water  arises  one  of  the 
chief  causes  of  springs.  It  will  be  an  evident 
consequence  of  the  two  first  laws  above  stated, 
that  if  water  be  accumulated  in  mass  within  a 


Fra.  2. 


mountain  or  hill -side,  beneath  the  surface,  and 
it  finds  egress  by  a  narrow  confined  passage  at  a 
lower  elevation,  that  the  force  with  which  it  will 
issue  from  its  lower  orifice  will  be  in  proportion 
to  the  distance  it  has  descended ;  in  other  words, 
in  proportion  to  the  pressure  of  the  superincum- 
bent vertical  column  of  water  above  it ;  and  thence 
arises  the  cause  of  the  fountain  jet.  When,  there- 
fore, in  draining,  a  spring  is  dug  into,  and  the 
water  spouts  up  with  violence,  the  source  of  it 
must  be  sought  for  in  higher  ground,  either  near 
or  distant.  For,  in  some  geological  formations  the 
water  may  travel  far  beneath  the  surface. 
FOURTH. — Capillary  attraction.  This  may  be  termed 
a  law  of  the  science  under  consideration,  although 
it  is  frequently  regarded  in  connection  with  the 
general  properties  of  Matter.  And  it  merits  atten- 
tion from  the  two-fold  reason  of  its  apparent  con- 


INTRODUCTION.  15 

tradiction  of  the  last-mentioned  law ;  and  also  from 
its  being  a  very  constant  agent  in  the  production 
of  the  evils  that  it  is  the  object  of  drainage  to 
counteract.  Capillary  attraction  is  that  property  of 
matter  which  enables  water  in  small  tubes  or  spaces 
to  rise  above  its  common  level.  The  most  simple 
example  is  the  ascent  of  water  in  a  sponge.  Place 
a  sponge  on  a  glass  of  water  with  one  end  of  it 
just  touching  the  water,  and  the  water  will  ascend. 
Take  two  plates  of  glass,  place  their  flat  sides  near 
each  other  on  one  side,  and  touching  each  other 
on  the  other  (Fig.  3),  and  then  put  their  ends  in 
water.  The  water  will  ascend  between  the  plates 
and  stand  with  a  curved  surface ;  the  highest  part 
being  where  the  plates  touch,  as  in  the  shaded  line 
of  the  figure. 

Fio.  8. 


In  the  same  way,  as  through  a  sponge,  will 
water  ascend,  and  be  held  in  suspension  by  the 
soil,  as  is  familiarly  exemplified  by  the  ascent  of 
water  in  a  flower-pot  from  the  saucer  beneath  it. 
It  will  equally  ascend  into  the  pot  whether  the 
latter  contains  a  plant  or  earth  only. 

Capillary  attraction,  when  drainage,  whether 
natural  or  artificial,  is  efficient,  becomes  valuable 


16  INTRODUCTION 

in  its  operation  upon  the  growth  of  vegetation. 
But  it  produces  results  so  vastly  extensive  and  so 
continuous  in  their  effect,  that  its  importance  as  a 
cause  of  surplus  water  must  not  be  lost  sight  of 
by  the  drainer  when  he  is  investigating  the  condi- 
tion of  land. 

Having  stated  the  chief  natural  laws  applicable  to 
the  subject,  let  us  briefly  refer  to  their  mode  of  opera- 
tion. 

Whilst  upon  the  earth's  surface,  the  motion  of  water 
is  regulated  by  its  weight  or  gravity  as  the  operating 
force ;  and  that  is  interfered  with  principally  by  the 
antagonistic  force  of  capillary  attraction,  by  evapora- 
tion, and  by  the  conformation  of  the  substances  over 
or  through  which  it  passes. 

Suppose  rain  to  fall,  or  water  to  run  down  a  hill- 
side upon  a  flat  surface  below.  If  that  surface  be  rock, 
impervious  to  water,  it  flows  over  the  surface  until  it 
meets  with  a  lower  level,  by  which  it  passes  off; 
whether  that  be  a  fissure  in  the  rock,  (in  which  case  it 
forms  a  cascade,  and  afterwards  a  river  in  the  lower 
ground  beyond,)  or  by  a  lower  level  of  equal  capacity 
with  that  from  which  it  flowed,  (in  which  event  it 
would,  as  before,  flow  evenly  over  it.)  But  if  the  rain 
descend  upon  soil  instead  of  upon  rock,  it  will  be  car- 
ried by  its  weight  downwards  through  the  soil  with 
greater  or  less  velocity  according  to  the  greater  or  less 
porous  texture  of  the  ground  on  which  it  falls.  As 
soon,  however,  as  a  portion  of  the  water  is  beneath  the 
surface,  capillary  attraction  begins  to  exercise  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  force  in  addition  to  the  one  of  gravity, 
which  continues  its  influence.  This  attraction  retains 


OF  THE. 

UNIVERSITY 

INTRODUCTION. 


within  the  pores  of  the  soil  (and  which  may  be  viewed 
as  an  accumulation  of  minute  tubes)  a  certain  portion 
of  the  water,  and  the  remainder  only  then  passes  down- 
wards by  the  force  of  gravity. 

It  is  found,  moreover,  that  the  power  of  capillary 
attraction  varies  in  different  substances  ;  and  it  varies 
also  in.  force,  in  a  ratio  inverse  to  the  size  of  the  tubes  in 
which  it  takes  place.  Vegetable  soils  are  favorable  to 
the  increase  of  the  force  in  a  greater  degree  than  clay, 
in  so  far  as  regards  their  texture  ;  but  they  part  with 
water  more  readily.  Whilst  clay,  from  the  more 
minute  size  of  its  pores,  commands  in  that  respect  a 
greater  force  of  capillary  attraction  than  vegetable 
soil,  and  retains  water  with  greater  tenacity. 

Assume,  then,  sections  to  be  made  on  the  sides  of 
two  hills,  one  of  sand  and  the  other  of  clay,  of  equal 
height,  and  that  rain  fell  on  the  top  of  each,  the  ob- 
server who  placed  himself  at  the  section  to  watch  the 
course  of  the  descent  of  the  falling  shower  through  the 
soil,  would  find  that  the  water  upon  each  hill-top 
would  sink  down  perpendicularly  a  certain  distance, 
and  would  be  attracted,  or  sucked  up,  by  the  top- 
soil  ;  but  if  the  quantity  falling  was  greater  than  the  ra- 
pidity of  its  downward  course,  (owing  either  to  the  close 
nature  of  the  soil,  or  the  intervention  of  rock  or  other 
impediment),  the  surface-soil  becoming  saturated,  the 
water  would  be  seen  to  ooze  out  and  run  down  the 
face  of  the  sections  of  each  hill.  So  far,  the  phenom- 
ena presented  would  be  identical.  But  the  follow- 
ing difference  in  the  two  sections  would  be  noticed  : 
the  perpendicular  distance  from  the  hill-tops,  or  surface- 
level^  at  which  the  water  first  oozed  out,  would  be  found 
to  be  much  less  in  measurement  in  the  side  of  the  sand- 


18  IXTKODUCTiOX. 

hill,  than  in  the  case  of  the  clay-hill ;  and  the  reason 
is  this  :  the  superincumbent  weight  of  water  requisite  to 
counterbalance  the  power  of  capillary  attraction  in  the 
sandy  soil,  would  be  much  less  than  that  which  was  nec- 
essary to  counterbalance  the  same  power  in  the  close- 
grained  clay  ;  and,  consequently  (by  the  natural  laws 
above  stated),  the  column  of  water  above  the  oozing  point 
would  require  to  be  much  higher  to  effect  the  object. 
Inasmuch,  however,  as  the  force  of  capillary  attraction 
does  not  prevent  the  passage  of  surplus  water  through 
the  interstices,  in  substances  upon  which  it  is  acting, 
whilst,  on  the  one  hand,  it  will  always  retain  so  much 
water  as  its  power  can  command  (and  the  extent  of 
which  will,  as  before  mentioned,  depend  upon  the  na- 
ture of  the  substance,  and  the  size  of  the  tubes),  it,  on 
the  other,  presents  no  obstacle  to  the  continued  passage 
of  water  from  the  surface  to  the  substrata  :  the  veloc- 
ity with  which  it  will  so  pass  depending  upon  various 
additional  considerations. 

It  is  upon  the  above  data  that  the  whole  process  of 
Under-draining  is  based. 

But  we  must  now  inquire  what  becomes  of  that  part 
of  the  water  which  is  not  held  in  suspension  near  the 
surface  by  capillary  attraction,  when,  by  its  gravity,  it 
has  accumulated  in  quantities  in  the  substrata  below. 
The  passage  downward  continues  in  perpendicular 
lines  from  the  surface,  until  its  further  progress  in  that 
direction  is  impeded  (as  has  been  before  observed)  by 
some  non-porous  obstacle,  when,  if  it  cannot  find  vent 
laterally,  it  accumulates,  and,  obeying  the  law  of  find- 
ing a  level,  it  forms  a  "  water-line"  at  a  given  depth 
(sometimes  calle'd  a  water-table),  which  level  is  elevated 
nearer  to  the  surface,  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  fall- 


INTRODUCTION.  19 

ing  upon  such  surface.  Thus  it  remains ;  stagnant, 
except  so  far  as  its  mass  is  diminished  by  the  capillary 
attraction*  constantly  going  on  in  the  soil  above  the 
water-line,  which  is  induced  to  supply  the  loss  of 
moisture  in  it,  occasioned  by  the  evaporation  which  is 
constantly  emanating  from  the  surface. 

In  this  condition  it  is  that,  for  profitable  farming, 
land,  when  this  water-line  is  so  near  the  surface  as  to 


*  Professor  Leslie  calculates  the  rise  of  water  in  coarse  sand  or 
loam  as  follows  :  It  the  gravel  were  divided  into  spaces  of  a  hun- 
dredth of  an  inch,  the  water  would  ascend  4.  inches,  and  so  on  to  a 
ten-thousandth  part  of  an  inch,  when  the  height  would  be  25.  feet. 
To  make  this  calculation  good,  the  pores  should  be  continuous,  and 
always  open.  In  most  soils,  the  cohesion  of  the  particles,  and  con- 
sequently the  diameter  of  the  pores,  is  affected  by  the  contact  of 
water.  In  chalk  this  is  not  the  case.  To  speak  first  of  this  sub- 
stance :  In  chalk,  the  pores,  which  are  not  to  be  discovered  by  a 
strong  microscope,  are  always  open.  A  piece  of  dry  chalk,  six  inches 
high,  of  which  the  foot  is  placed  in  contact  with  the  surface  of 
the  water,  absorbs  about  one-third  of  its  bulk,  and  about  one-fourth 
of  its  weight ;  it  will  become  quite  saturated  in  a  short  time,  say 
one  hour,  so  that  it  will  take  up  no  more,  though  immersed  in  water. 
Moreover,  if  suddenly  immersed  when  dry,  it  will  not  be  thoroughly 
saturated,  a  portion  of  the  air  contained  in  the  pores  being  im- 
pounded in  the  centre.  If  a  second  piece  be  placed  on  that  satu- 
rated, the  water  will  pass  through  one  to  the  other,  and  so  on. 
About  thirty  pieces,  piled  on  each  other  in  a  glass  tube,  the  point  of 
contact  between  some  of  them  being  not  more  than  the  surface  of 
a  pin's  head,  become  saturated  in  about  two  months,  so  that  the  top 
piece,  when  immersed,  would  not  take  up  more  than  the  turn  of  the 
scale  in  addition.  Hence,  we  see  how  water  is  lifted  in  chalk, 
which  will  not  part  with  a  single  drop  by  drainage.  Clay,  when 
submitted  to  water,  also  becomes  saturated  by  capillary  attraction, 
but  much  less  rapidly  than  chalk. — Gardener's  Chronicle,  2Sd  July, 
1853. 


20  INTRODUCTION. 

interfere  with,  vegetation,  requires  to  be  drained,  no 
less  than  it  does  when  the  water  stands  on  the  surface ; 
and  this  introduces  to  us  the  question  of  the  manner  of 
effecting  that  object. 


T     I? 


PRINCIPLES  AND  SYSTEMS  OF  DRAINAGE. 

CHAPTER    I. 

THE   EXAMINATION    OF   LAND    REQUIRING  DRAINAGE. 

THE  Art  of  Drainage  may  be  defined  to  be,  that  prep- 
aration of  land  for  the  purpose  of  the  husbandman 
which  places  it  in  a  fit  condition  for  retaining  so 
much  and  no  more  moisture,  and  for  such  periods  of 
time,  as  is  best  adapted  to  the  vegetation  and  growth 
of  his  crops.  This,  of  course,  includes  the  removal 
from  the  land  of  superabundant  water,  whether  upon 
the  surface  or  beneath  it.  No  one  will  assume  that  it 
is  practicable  in  all  cases  to  attain  perfection  in  this  re- 
spect ;  but  in  this,  as  in  all  other  human  pursuits,  he  who 
would  succeed  must  present  the  ideal  fit  least  of  perfec- 
tion to  his  mental  vision,  as  the  object  to  be  aimed  at  ; 
and  then  he  must  use  the  best  means  within  control  to 
attain  as  nearly  to  the  image  set  before  him  as  circum- 
stances will  permit  ;  always,  in  his  efforts,  keeping  in 
mind  the  fact  that  his  personal  energies  to  attain  his 
object,  being  within  his  own  control,  must  be  lavished 
without  stint.  Much  has  been  done  in  many  matters 

small  means,  but  with  such  energy. 
t  should  be  observed,  moreover,  that  placing  the 
soil  in  a  fit  condition  as  to  the  quantum  of  moisture 
for  vegetation,  is  not  the  sole  object  of  moment  to  the 
husbandman  to  be  attained  by  draining.     Another  and 

(21) 


\V1U1 

^ 

*"     soil  i 


22  LAND    REQUIRING   DRAINAGE. 

• 

very  important  consequence  that  results  from  it  is,  the 
elevation  of  the  temperature  of  the  soil  immediately 
under  the  surface.  This,  during  the  greater  part  of 
the  year,  is  of  much  importance  to  vegetation. 

The  advantages  of  draining  land  are  now  so  gene- 
rally known,  that  it  would  be  superfluous  to  do  more 
than  advert  to  them.  Suffice  it  to  say,  that,  whilst  it 
renders  much  waste  land  valuable  which  was  before 
useless,  it  renders  doubly  productive  much  land  that 
already  is  valuable. 

In  the  report  on  draining,  in  the  Transactions  of  the 
K  Y.  State  Agricultural  Society,  for  1848,  the  com- 
mittee state,  in  reference  to  upland,  "  that  there  is  not 
one  farm  out  of  every  seventy-Jive  in  this  State  but  needs 
draining — yes,  much  draining — to  bring  them  into  high 
cultivation ;  nay,  we  may  venture  to  say,  that  every 
^heat-field  would  produce  a  larger  and  finer  crop  if 
properly  drained." 

In  order  to  simplify  the  subject,  it  is  proposed  to 
divide  this  volume  into  two  parts. 

The  FIRST  PART  will  treat  of  the  principles  of  Drain- 
age, the  various  Systems  in  use,  and  their  adapta- 
tion to  different  descriptions  of  land. 
The  SECOND  PART  will  contain  practical  directions 
for  the  constniction  of  Drainage,  and  will  also 
explain  the  materials  that  can  be  made  available 
for  the  purpose. 

The  first  object  to  be  looked  at  in  regard  to  draini 
is  the  source  and  cause  of  the  superabundant  water  in  the 
land  about  to  be  drained.  This  must  be  sought  for  in 
cases  where  it  is  not  self-evident  by  an  examination  of 
the  soil  and  subsoil ;  and  of  the  geological  formation 


LAND   REQUIRING   DRAINAGE.  23 

of  the  situation,  and  of  the  surrounding  country; 
except  in  cases  where  the  source  or  cause  of  the  wet 
condition  of  the  land  is  apparent.  The  examination 
of  the  soil  and  the  subsoil  is  made  by  digging  large 
holes  down  several  feet  deep,  at  distances  around  the 
land,  or  by  a  trench  dug  along  the  sides,  (which  may 
afterwards  form  part  of  the  drains,)  taking  care  to 
examine  especially  such  parts  as  either  in  reference  to 
the  quantity  of  water  present,  or  the  conformation  of 
the  surface,  appear  to  indicate  the  probability  of  varia- 
tion in  the  substrata.  This  examination  should  be 
made  to  a  depth  of  five  feet  at  least,  if  the  nature  of 
the  ground  permit ;  but  if  the  surface  soil  is  a  shallow 
layer  upon  rock,  the  nature  of  the  rock  should  be 
examined,  and  its  character,  whether  of  porosity  or- of 
impermeability,  ascertained.  This  examination  as  to  the 
soil,  if  deep,  will  enable  the  drainer  to  arrive  at  some 
approximate  idea  of  the  depth  at  which  the  water  is 
impeded,  and  the  course  of  its  flow  beneath  the  surface, 
if  it  be  not  stagnant. 

The  geological  examination  is,  however,  by  no  means 
easy  even  to  the  experienced  eye.  The  distribution 
of  soils  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth,  is  very  various 
as  to  quality,  texture,  and  thickness.  The  formation 
of  the  subjacent  rocks  on  which  they  rest,  is  no  less  so. 
The  direction  of  the  rocky  strata  as  to  their  inclination, 
or  "  dip,"  as  it  is  called,  is  also  changeable  and  endless. 
Some  strata  are  porous,  readily  admitting  the  passage 
of  water ;  others  in  a  much  less  degree  so ;  and  again 
others,  whilst  they  are  impervious  to  water,  as  regards 
their  solidity,  are  filled,  nevertheless,  with  fissures  and 
cracks,  which  permit  the  free  ingress  and  egress  of  the 
water  through  them.  It  will  be  obvious,  therefore,  that 


24  LAND    REQUIRING   DRAINAGE. 

the  great  secret  which  it  is  desirable  to  the  drainer  to 
ascertain,  is  the  effect  of  these  numerous,  and  often 
conjointly  operating  causes,  upon  the  course  of  the 
water  with  which  he  has  to  deal. 

In  level  districts  of  country,  the  examination  of  the 
surface  and  the  subsoil  is  usually  sufficient  to  direct  to 
tolerably  satisfactory  conclusions  for  practical  pur- 
poses ;  but  in  hilly  and  mountainous  districts,  it  will  be 
evident  that  the  underground  aqueous  currents  must 
be  dependent  upon  a  multiplicity  of  circumstances,  the 
effects  of  which  can  only  to  a  limited  extent  be  under- 
stood, whilst  still  such  of  them  as  can  be  unravelled, 
afford  valuable  information  to  guide  the  operations  of 
drainage. 

In  order  to  give  some  general  ideas  on  the  subject, 
the  following  extract  from  a  valuable  article  on  Drain- 
age is  given,  which  will  afford  data  upon  which  to 
found  more  particular  observations  of  different  lo- 
calities : 

"Should  a  mountain  consist  of  concentric  Layers  of 
different  rocks  arranged  mantle-shaped  around  it,  then 
water  will  descend  between  the  lines  of  junction  of  the 
rocks ;  and  should  the  masses  or  beds  of  rock  be  of 
different  extents,  and  thickness,  and  consistence,  then 
the  water  will  either  appear  at  the  surface  of  the  ground 
as  a  spring,  from  the  subjacent  rock  of  a  close  texture, 
or  it  will  descend  yet  lower,  and  be  absorbed  by  the 
subjacent  rock  of  a  porous  texture.  In  this  manner 
the  harder  rocks  cause  the  springs  to  appear  at  a  high 
elevation,  while  the  porous  ones  convey  the  water  to  a 
lower  level,  until  it  meets  with  a  resisting  substance  to 
cause  it  to  come  to  the  day.  In  any  case  the  farmer 
cannot  do  any  thing  until  the  water  indicates  its  pres- 


LAND   REQUIRING   DRAINAGE. 


25 


ence  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  either  at  a  high  or 
low  elevation;  and  then  he  should  take  measures 
accordingly  to  remove  it. 

"To  illustrate  the  cases  now  alluded  to,  suppose 


Fig.   4    to   represent  a  hill   composed   of   different 
rocks  of  different  consistence.     Suppose  the  nucleus 
rock  a  to  be  of  close  texture,  when  the  rain  falls 
2 


26  LAND   KKQUIHIXG    DBAIX.Ui!-:. 

upon  the  summit  of  the  hill,  which  is  supposed  not 
to  be  covered  with  impervious  clay,  but  with  vege- 
table mould,  the  rain  will  not  be  absorbed  by  «,  but 
will  pass  down  by  gravity  between  a  and  5,  another 
kind  of  rock  of  close  texture.  When  the  rain  falls  in 
greater  quantity  than  will  pass  between  these  rocks,  it 
will  overflow  the  upper  edge  of  &,  and  pass  over  its 
surface  down  to  c /  but  as  c  is  a  continuation  of  the 
nucleus  impervious  rock  «,  a  large  spring  will  flow 
down  the  side  of  the  hill  from  c,  and  render  the  ground 
quite  wet  to  d,  where,  meeting  another  large  stratum 
of  impervious  rock,  it  will  burst  out  to-day  a  large 
spring  at  d,  which  -will  be  powerful  in  proportion  to  the 
quantity  of  rain  that  falls  on  the  mountain.  On  flow- 
ing down  6,  part  of  the  water  will  be  intercepted  by 
the  rocks  /  and  </,  both  of  which,  being  porous,  will 
absorb  and  retain  it  until  surcharged.  The  surplus 
water  meeting  with  the  impervious  rock  e,  will  be 
partly  thrust  out  to-day  along  the  black  line  d  A,  on  the 
one  hand,  and  d  i  on  the  other,  when  the  whole  line  h  i 
will  present  a  long  dark  line  of  wet  oozing  out  of  the 
soil,  with  the  spring  d  in  the  centre,  and  which  darkness 
and  dampness  will  extend  down  the  inclined  ground  as 
far  as  the  upper  line  Jc  I  of  that  porous  stratum  of  rock. 
Part  of  the  water  absorbed  by  the  porous  rocks  /  and 
g  will  be  conveyed  under  the  impervious  rock  e,  and 
come  out  at  their '  lowest  extremities,  following  the 
curved  dotted  lines  h  d  and  d  i,  and  continue  to  flow  on 
until  it  reaches  the  lowest  extremity  of  e  in  the  dotted 
line  k  I,  where  it  will  be  absorbed  by  the  porous 
rock  m. 

"By  such  an  arrangement  of  rocky  strata  on  the  side 
of  a  mountain  range,  will  be  exhibited  specimens  of  both 


LAND   REQUIRING   DRAINAGE.  27 

wetness  and  dryncss  of  soils.  The  summit  a  will  be 
wet,  and  so  will  the  surface  of  5,  but  the  surfaces  of/ 
and  g  will  be  dry.  Again,  the  surface  of  e  will  also  be 
wet,  but  less  so  than  that  of  5,  because  part  of  the 
water  is  conveyed  by  /  and  g  under  e  to  the  dry  stratum 
k  I,  which  being  probably  thicker,  and,  at  all  events, 
of  greater  extent,  will  be  drier  than  either /or  g.  On 
another  side  of  the  surface  of  the  hill  another  result  will 
take  effect.  The  rain  falling  on  the  summit  a  will 
descend  between  a  and  n,  as  far  as  the  lowest  extremity 
of  n  along  the  dotted  line  op,  which  being  under  the  im- 
pervious rock  e,  the  water  will  continue  to  flow  out  of 
sight  until  it  descends  to  k  I,  where  it  will  be  absorbed 
by  the  porous  rock  m,  and  thus  never  appear  at  all 
either  as  a  spring  or  a  line  of  dampness.  But  should 
the  quantity  of  rain  at  any  time  be  greater  than  what 
will  pass  between  a  and  n,  it  will  overflow  n  and  be 
absorbed  in  its  descent  by  the  porous  rock  /  which, 
after  becoming  surcharged,  will  let  loose  the  superflu- 
ous water  in  the  line  h  r,  upon  the  continuation  of  the 
rock  ?i,  part  of  which  will  come  to-day  along  the  line 
h  o  of  the  imperious  rock  e,  and  part  conveyed  down 
by  o  p  to  the  porous  rock  k  I,  where  it  will  be  ab- 
sorbed. "  Thus,  on  this  side  of  the  hill,  as  long  as  little 
rain  falls,  none  but  its  summit  will  be  wet,  and  all  the 
rest  will  be  dry,  though  the  surfaces  of  /  and  k  will 
always  be  drier  than  those  of  n  or  e  ;  but  after  heavy 
rains  dampness  will  show  itself  along  the  line  h  r,  and 
will  extend  itself  even  to  the  line  of  k  Z,  should  the  rain 
continue  to  fall  some  time. 

"  The  line  s  by  the  summit  a  to  t  is  the  mould  line 
pervious  to  moisture,  and  which  is  here  represented  as 
is  frequently  exhibited  in  nature,  namely,  a  thickness 


28  LAND  REQUIRING  DRAINAGE. 

of  soil  on  the  southern  side  of  the  hill,  as  from  a 
to  i,  and  a  thickness  of  soil  on  the  northern  basis,  as 
from  r  to  s  ;  but  a  thinness  of  soil  on  the  southern  face, 
as  from  a  to  r.  It  is  not  pretended  that  this  figure  is 
a  truly  geological  portrait  of  any  mountain.  But  such 
overlying  and  disconnected  strata  do  occur  over  ex- 
tended districts  of  hilly  country  which  produce  springs 
much  in  the  way  described.  Similar  courses  of  water 
occur  in  less  elevated  districts,  though  it  remains  more 
hidden  under  the  deeper  alluvial  rocks."* 

From  the  foregoing  diagram  explanatory  of  the  geo- 
logical distribution  of  soils,  and  of  the  strata  upon 
which  they  rest,  it  will  be  evident  that  if  a  section  be 
cut  through  ground  which  slopes,  it  will  frequently 
happen  that  the  substrata  lying  more  or  less  horizon- 
tally will  "crop  out,"  or  strike  the  slope  as  it  is 
ascended,  at  right  angles,  or  nearly  so,  as  is  shown  in 
the  figure. 

Fig.  5. 


THE  USUAL  POSITION  OF  SUBSTRATA  IN  REFERENCE  TO  THE  SURFACE  SOU.. 


Bearing  in  mind  the  preceding  remarks  upon  the 
passage  of  water  through  strata  of  various  degrees  of 
permeability,  it  will  be  obvious  that  when  water  from 
the  top  of  the  slope  has  sunk  through  such  of  the 
upper  strata  as  are  porous,  and  in  its  descent  comes 
to  strata  that,  from  their  closer  texture,  oppose  its 
downward  course,  it  will  flow  along  such  strata  until 
the  body  of  the  latter  becomes  saturated,  and  the 
*  Stephens. 


LAND   REQUIRING   DRAINAGE.  29 

surplus  water  will  then  come  out  upon  the  slope  and 
run  clown  its  face. 

It  will  be  perceived,  from  the  brief  view  which  has 
been  taken,  that  the  principal  causes  of  mischief  to  un- 
drained  land  arise  from  one  or  more  of  the  following 
conditions : 

1.  Where  water  has  accumulated  beneath  the  surface, 

and  originated  springs ; 

2.  Where,  from  the  close  nature  of  the  substrata,  it 

cannot  pass  freely  downward,  but  accumulates, 
and  forms  its  level,  or  water-line,  at  a  short  dis- 
tance below  the  surface ;  and, 

3.  Where,  from  the  clayey  or  close  texture  of  the  soil, 

it  lies  on  the  surface,  and  becomes  stagnant. 

The  preliminary  examination  of  the  ground  above 
directed,  is  made  with  the  view  to  ascertain  as  nearly 
as  possible  whether  the  water  to  be  got  rid  of  pro- 
ceeds from  one  or  more,  and  which,  of  the  above 
causes. 

Swamps,  bogs,  and  morasses,  generally  are  occa- 
sioned by  the  first  and  second  of  the  above  conditions ; 
and  that  surface  Vet  state,  that  often  prevails  in  tena- 
cious soils,  that  have  a  comparatively  even  level  ap- 
pearance, usually  arises  from  the  last  cause  named 
above. 


CHAPTER    II. 

THE   VARIOUS  SYSTEMS   OF  DRAINAGE. 

UPON  the  cause  which  is  found  (from  the  examina- 
tion of  the  land  recommended  in  the  preceding  chap- 
ter) to  produce  the  water  that  is  to  be  drained  away, 
will  depend  the  system  of  drainage  that  it  is  most  ex- 
pedient to  adopt,  in  order  to  remove  it. 

There  are  three  systems  of  drainage  which  have  been 
most  in  use.  These  are,  Surface  Draining,  Frequent 
or  Thorough  Draining,  and  Deep  Draining. 

Surface  Draining  consists  in  cutting  channels  for 
water  to  pass  through  upon  the  surface,  which  are  left 
as  permanent  open  ditches. 

Frequent,  or  Thorough  Draining,  or  Under-draining, 
as  it  is  often  called,  consists  in  opening  numerous 
drains  at  various  depths  near  the  surface,  or  not  below 
three  or  four  feet  from  it,  and  filling  them  again,  after 
providing  a  duct  for  the  passage  of  water  at  the  bottom 
of  them,  either  open  or  formed  of  porous  materials. 

Deep  Draining  consists  in  making  drains  in  the  same 
manner  as  for  Frequent  or  Thorough  Drains,  but 
much  fewer  in  number,  and  placed  at  greater  depths — 
from  four  or  five  to  eight  feet,  or  even  more,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  ground  and  the  formation  of  its 
surface  line.  This  is  called,  also,  "  Elkington's  Sys- 
tem," from  the  name  of  its  originator. 

For  the  purpose  of  intercepting  springs  and  deeply- 
seated  masses  of  wafer,  the  value  of  deep  draining  is 

(80) 


VARIOUS   -SYSTEMS   OF   DRAIN  AUK.  81 

generally  acknowledged ;  but  its  efficiency,  as  compared 
with  the  system  called  Thorough  Drainage,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  removing  water  present,  or  falling  upon  the 
surface  in  the  shape  of  rain,  in  subsoils  of  a  stiff,  clayey 
character,  and  for  keeping  such  soils  in  a  favorable 
state  for  agricultural  purposes,  has  been  made  matter  of 
great  dispute  with  professional  drainers  of  eminence. 

It  may  serve  to  elucidate  the  question  of  the  com- 
parative advantages  of  the  two  systems,  to  state  in  as 
fewr  words  as  possible  the  principal  features  in  the  dis- 
pute between  the  advocates  of  each. 

The  deep  drainers  contend  that,  as  water  always 
seeks  the  lowest  level,  the  deeper  the  drain  is  placed, 
the  lower  must  be  the  under-ground  watcr-linr,  or 
level  of  surplus  water ;  because,  the  water  that  passes 
down  from  the  surface  to  the  depth  of  the  drain,  can 
only  accumulate  belowr  it ;  for,  as  soon  as  it  has  risen 
below  it  to  the  level  of  the  bottom  of  the  drain,  it  will 
then  enter  the  drain  at  the  bottom,  through  its  porous 
material,  and  be  carried  away  Toy  it.  Consequently, 
they  say,  the  deeper  the  drain,  the  greater  will  be  the 
mass  of  thoroughly-drained  soil  above  it. 

This  is  undoubtedly  correct,  provided  the  deep 
drains  be  near  enough  together,  and  the  soil  above 
them  be  porous  enough  to  allow  of  the  passage  of 
water  through  ivith  sufficient  rapidity  to  keep  the  sur- 
face usually  in  a  fit  state  for  agriculture.  In  many 
soils  and  situations,  it  may  be  the  case..  But  if  the 
subsoil  be  of  a  stiff,  clayey,  or  very  tenacious  nature, 
the  shallow  drainers  contend  that  thorough  or  frequent 
drainage  becomes  the  most  efficient;  because,  they 
conceive  that  the  water  cannot  descend  far  below  the 
surface  in  clay ;  and  that  it  is  either  held,  therefore,  in 


32         VARIOUS  SYSTEMS  OF  DRAINAGE. 

suspension  by  the  soil,  or,  if  saturated,  that  it  remains 
on  the  surface,  and  that  it  does  not  pass  through  to  deep 
drains  below.  And  this  may  be  so  in  very  stiff  soils, 
so  far,  at  least,  as  to  render  it  impracticable,  (looking  at 
the  quantity  of  fatting  water  to  be  got  rid  of  in  a  given 
time,)  to  prevent  the  water-line  rising  nearer  to  the  sur- 
face than  is  desirable,  from  the  slow  rate  at  which,  in 
such  soils,  water  percolates  downwards.  But  the  idea 
that  water  will  not  slowly  continue  its  passage  down 
through  clay,  is  erroneous.  The  principle  of  deep  drain- 
ing is,  therefore,  not  really  the  subject  matter  in  the 
dispute,  so  much  as 'its  expediency  and  practical  utility, 
as  compared  with  more  shallow  and  numerous  drains, 
in  some  soils  and  situations. 

That  this  is  the  solution  of  these  different  views  of 
the  matter,  appears  to  be  the  fact,  from  the  circum- 
stance, that  in  'many  instances  in  which  deep  draining 
has  been  adopted,  after  shallow  drains  had  been  found 
ineffectual  upon  the  same  piece  of  land,  (and  in  which, 
consequently,  the  two  sets  of  shallow  and  deep  drains 
have  existed  together,)  it  has  been  ascertained,  that 
after  heavy  storms,  the  deep  -drains  have  given  out 
water  long  after  the  shallow  ones  ceased  to  do  so. 
It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  had  the  deep  drains  been 
absent,  the  shallow  drains  could  only  have  taken  the 
water  away  which  was  above,  or  on  the  same  level 
with  themselves. 

But  it  has  been  wrongly  called  by  the  advocates  of 
either  side  a  dispute  about  deep  draining,  and  frequent 
or  thorough  draining :  for  as  Elkington's  deep  drain- 
age provides  for  the  free  passage  of  water  by  open  sub- 
terranean ducts,  and  as  Smith,  of  Deanston,  (the  great 
promoter  of  the  system  known  as  thorough  draining,) 


VARIOUS  SYSTEMS   OF   DRAINAGE.  83 

directs  especially  the  placing  of  an  impervious  mate- 
rial over  the  drains  to  prevent  the  downward  passage 
of  water  directly  into  them  from  the  surface,  the  mode 
of  operation  of  those  drains  is  the  same  as  that  of  drains 
cut  deeper  and  at  greater  distances  apart;  whatever 
may  be  the  relative  advantages  of  the  two  systems  as 
to  their  efficiency. 

The  dispute  in  reality  has  been,  What  is  the  true  way 
in  which  the  drains  act  ?  And  the  questions  put  in  issue 
by  the  parties  may  be  stated  thus :  Whether  deep  drains 
on  the  Elkington  system  are  applicable  to  all  cases; 
those  arising  from  the  pressure  of  springs  or  stagnant 
water,  and  those  arising  from  surplus  surface  or  rain 
water,  in  stiff  soils  and  subsoils?  And  whether,  assum- 
ing that  frequent  drainage  is  a  preferable  system  for  the 
latter  class  of  cases,  this  frequent  drainage  should  be  at  a 
depth  of  three  feet  as  a  'maximum,  as  advocated  by  the 
shallow  drainers,  or  that  four  feet  should  be  a  minimum 
depth,  as  advocated  by  the  deep  drainers?  And  fur- 
ther :  What  should  be  the  distance  apart  of  the  drains  ? 
These  are  the  questions  now  remaining  at  issue  between 
the  most  eminent  drainers  in  England. 

In  some  situations,  where,  for  instance,  the  examina- 
tion of  the  land  showed  that  springs  from  high  ground 
were  partly  the  cause  of  the  evil,  and  the  nature  of 
the  substrata  another,  it  would  be  right  to  cut  off  the 
springs  upon  Elkington's  system,  and  then  drain  the 
land  generally  upon  the  frequent  drainage  principle. 

The  system  of  surface  drainage,  by  open  drains,  re- 
quires no  particular  notice  in  this  chapter,  as  its  mode 
of  action  is  selftevident. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  explain  the  above  systems, 
and  the  method  of  carrying  them  out. 


CHAPTER    III. 

DEEP  DRAINAGE. 

THE  system  of  deep  drainage,  is  called  Elkingtorfs 
method,  having  originated  with  Mr.  Joseph  Elkington, 
a  farmer,  who  resided  in  Warwickshire,  England,  and 
was  first  practiced  by  him  about  1764.  His  fields  being 
very  wet,  and  rotting  many  of  his  sheep,  he  dug  a 
trench  four  or  five  feet  deep,  with  the  view  of  dis- 
covering the  cause  of  the  wetness.  Having  a  suspicion 
that  the  drain  was  not  deep  enough,  he  forced  an  iron 
crowbar  four  feet  below  the  bottom  of  the  trench,  and, 
on  pulling  it  out,  a  great  quantity  of  water  welled  up 
through  the  hole  it  made.  He  was  led  to  infer  from 
this,  that  large  bodies  of  water  are  pent  up  in  the  earth, 
and  constantly  injuring  the  surface-soil,  but  which  may 
be  let  off  by  tapping  with  an  auger  or  rod.  This  dis- 
covery introduced  a  complete  revolution  in  the  art  of 
draining. 

The  principles  of  Elkington's  mode  of  draining  seem 
to  depend  on  these  three  alleged  facts  :  1.  That  water 
from  springs  is  the  principal  cause  of  the  wetness  of  land, 
which,  if  not  removed,  nothing  effectual  in  draining 
can  be  accomplished.  2.  That  the  hearings  of  springs 
to  one  another  must  he  ascertained  before  it  can  be  deter- 
mined where  the  lines  of  drains  should  be  opened ;  and 

(84) 


DEEP   DRAINAGE.  85 

by  the  bearings  of  springs,  is  meant  that  line  which 
would  pass  through  the  seats  of  true  springs  in  any 
given  locality.  Springs  are  characterized  as  true  which 
continue  to  flow  and  retain  their  places  at  all  seasons ; 
and  temporary  springs  consist  of  bursts  of  water,  occa- 
sioned either  by  heavy  rains,  causing  it  to  appear  on  the 
surface  sooner,  or  at  a  higher  level  than  permanent 
springs,  or  by  true  springs  leaking  water,  and  causing 
it  to  appeal  on  the  surface  at  a  lower  level  than  them- 
selves; and,  if  such  springs  are  weak,  their  leakage 
may  be  mistaken  for  themselves.  It  is  evident,  that  if 
drains  are  formed  through  these  bursts  of  water,  no 
effectual  draining  takes  place,  which  can  only  be  accom- 
plished by  the  drain  passing  through  the  line  of  true 
springs.  3.  That  tapping  the  spring  with  the  auger  is, 
a  necessary  expedient,  when  the  drain  cannot  be  cut  deep 
enough  to  intercept  it.* 

The  causes  of  the  wetness  of  land,  to  remedy  which 
this  system  was  put  forward,  were  primarily  those 
arising  from  springs,  and  oozings  of  water  issuing  from 
elevated  and  hilly  districts  of  ground,  the  characters  of 
which  frequently  prove  the  means  of  rendering  the 
grounds  below  wet  and  swampy;  for  the  general 
moisture  of  the  atmosphere  being  condensed  in  much 
greater  quantities  in  such  elevated  situations,  the  water 
thus  formed,  as  well  as  that  which  falls  in  rain,  and 
sinks  through  the  superficial  porous  materials,  readily 
insinuates  itself,  and  thus  passes  along  between  the  first 
and  second,  and  still  more  inferior  strata,  which  com- 
pose the  sides  of  such  elevations,  until  its  descent  is 
retarded,  or  totally  obstructed  by  some  impenetrable 

*  Johnston  on  Elkington's  Mode  of  Draining. 


#0  DEEP   DRAINAGE. 

substance,  such  as  clay.  It  there  becomes  dammed  up, 
and  ultimately  forced  to  filtrate  slowly  over  it,  or  to 
rise  to  some  part  of  the  surface,  and  constitute,  ac- 
cording to  the  particular  circumstances  of  the  case, 
different  watery  appearances  in  the  grounds  below. 
These  appearances  are  oozing  springs,  bogs,  swamps, 
or  morasses,  weeping  rocks  (from  water  slowly  issuing 
in-various  places),  or  a  large  spring  or  rivulet,  from  the 
union  of  small  currents  beneath  the  ground.  This  is 
obvious  from  the  sudden  disappearance  of  moisture  on 
some  parts  of  lands,  while  it  stagnates,  or  remains  till 
removed  by  the  effects  of  evaporation,  on  others ;  as 
well  as  from  the  force  of  springs  being  stronger  in  wet 
than  in  dry  weather ;  breaking  out  frequently  after  the 
land  has  been  impregnated  with  much  moisture  in 
higher  situations,  and  as  the  season  becomes  drier 
ceasing  to  flow,  except  at  the  lowest  outlets.  The  force 
of  springs,  or  proportion  of  water  which  they  send 
forth,  depends,  likewise,  in  a  great  measure,  on  the 
extent  of  the  high  ground  on  which  the  moisture  is 
received  and  detained,  furnishing  extensive  reservoirs, 
or  collections  of  water,  by  which  they  become  more 
amply  and  regularly  supplied.  On  this  account,  what 
are  termed  bog  springs,  or  such  as  rise  in  valleys  and 
low  grounds,  are  considerably  stronger,  and  more 
regular  in  their  discharge,  than  such  as  burst  forth  on 
the  more  elevated  situations  on  the  sides  of  eminences.* 
In  order  to  remove  the  evil  consequences  referred  to, 
caused  by  water  passing  between  the  porous  and  imper- 
vious strata  of  mountains  and  hills,  and  producing 
springs,  the  mode  of  draining  is  that  of  intercepting 

*  Johnston  on  Draining. 


DKEP   DRAINAGE. 


87 


the  descent  of  the  water  or  spring,  and  thereby  totally 
removing  the  cause  of  wetness.  This  may  be  done 
where  the  depth  of  the  superficial  strata,  and  conse- 
quently of  the  spring,  is  not  great,  by  making  hori- 


Ffg.  6. 


zontal  drains  (Fig.  6,  a)  of  considerable  length  across 
the  declivities  of  the  hills,  about  where  the  low  grounds 
of  the  valley  begin  to  form,  and  connecting  these  with 
others,  6,  made  for  the  purpose  of  conveying  the  water 
thus  collected  into  the  brooks  or  rivulets,  c,  that  may  be 
near.  Where  the  spring  has  naturally  found  itself  an 
outlet,  it  may  frequently  only  be  necessary  to  bore  into 
it,  e,  or  render  it  larger  and  of  more  depth ;  which,  by 
affording  the  water  a  more  free  and  open  passage,  may 
evacuate  and  bring  it  off  more  quickly,  or  suit  it  to  a 
level  so  greatly  below  that  of  the  surface  of  the  soil,  as 
to  prevent  it  from  flowing  into  or  over  it. 

Where  the  uppermost  stratum  is  so  extremely  thick 
as  not  to  be  easily  penetrated,  or  where  the  springs 
formed  by  the  water  passing  from  the  higher  grounds 
may  be  confined  beneath  the  third  or  fourth  strata 


33  DEEP    DRAINAGE. 

of  the  materials  that  form  the  declivities  of  hills  or 
elevated  grounds,  and  by  this  means  lie  too  deep  to 
be  penetrated  by  the  cutting  of  a  ditch,  or  even  by 
boring,  the  common  mode  of  cutting  a  great  number 
of  drains  to  the  depth  of  five,  six,  or  more  feet  across 
the  wet  m  or  assy  grounds,  and  afterwards  covering 
them  in  such  a  manner  as  that  the  water  may  suffer  no 
interruption  in  passing  away  through  them,  may  be 
practiced  with  advantage  ;  as  much  of  the  prejudicial 
excess  of  moisture  may  by  this  means  be  collected  and 
carried  away,  though  not  so  completely  as  by  fully 
cutting  off  the  spring.-" 

In  the  drainage  of  ivet  or  l>oggy  grounds  arising  from 
springs  of  water  beneath  them,  a  great  variety  of  circum- 
stances are  necessary  to  be  kept  in  view.  Wet  grounds 
of  these  kinds  may  be  arranged  under  three  distinct 
heads :  First,  such,  as  may  be  readily  known  by  the 

Fig.  7. 


„  springs  rising  out  of  the  adjacent  more  elevated  ground 
in  an  exact  or  regular  line  along  the  higher  side  of  the 
wet  surface.  Secondly,  those  in  which  the  numerous 

*  LoudoD. 


DEEP   DRAINAGE.  39 

springs  that  show  themselves  are  not  kept  to  an  exact 
or  regular  line  of  direction  along  the  higher  or  more 
elevated  parts  of  the  land,  but  break  forth  promiscu- 
ously throughout  the  whole  surface,  and  particularly 
towards  the  inferior  parts,  (Fig.  7,  «,)  constituting 
shaking  quags  in  every  direction  that  have  an  elastic 
feel  under  the  feet,  on  which  the  lightest  animals  can 
scarcely  tread  without  danger,  and  which,  for  the  most 
part,  show  themselves  by  the  luxuriance  and  verdure 
of  the  grass  about  them ;  and,  Thirdly,  that  sort  of 
wet  land  from  the  oozing  of  springs,  which  is  neither 
of  such  great  extent,  nor,  in  the  nature  of  the  soil,  so 
peaty  as  the  other  two,  and  to  which  the  term  bog  can- 
not be  strictly  applied,  but  which,  in  respect  to  the 
modes  of  draining,  is  the  same.* 

In  order  to  direct  the  proper  mode  of  cutting  the 
drains,  or  trenches,  in  draining  lands  of  this  sort,  it 
will  be  necessary  for  the  draining  engineer  to  make 
himself  perfectly  acquainted  with  the  nature  and  dispo- 
sition of  the  strata  composing  the  higher  grounds,  and 
the  connection  which  they  have  with  that  which  is  to 
be  rendered  dry.  This  may,  in  general,  be  accom- 
plished by  means  of  levelling,  and  by  inspecting  the 
beds  of  rivers,  the  edges  of  banks  that  have  been 
wrought  through,  and  such  pits  and  quarries  as  may 
have  been  dug  near  to  the  land.  Hushes,  alder-bushes, 
and  other  coarse  aquatic  plants,  may  also,  in  some  in- 
stances, serve  as  guides  in  this  business ;  but  they 
should  not  be  too  implicitly  depended  on,  as  they  may 
be  caused  by  the  stagnation  of  rain-water  upon  the 
surface,  without  any  spring  being  present.  The  line 

*  Johnston  on  Draining. 


40 


DEEP   DRAINAGE. 


of  springs  being  ascertained,  and  also  some  knowledge 
of  the  substrata  being  acquired,  a  line  of  drain  (Fig.  7 
b  b)  should  be  marked  out  above  or  below  them,  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  strata,  and  excavated  to 
such  a  depth  as  will  intercept  the  water  in  the  porous 
strata  before  it  rises  to  the  surface.  The  effect  of  such 


Ficr.  8. 


drain  will  often  be  greatly  heightened  by  boring  holes 
in  their  bottom  with  the  auger.  Where  the  imper- 
vious stratum  (Fig.  8,  «)  that  lies  immediately  beneath 
the  porous,  6,  has  a  slanting  direction  through  a  hill  or 
rising  bank,  the  surface  of  the  low  lands  will,  in  gene- 
ral, be  spongy,  wet,  and  covered  with  rushes  on  every 
side,  c.  In  this  case,  a  ditch  or  drain,  d,  properly 
cut  on  one  side  of  the  hill  or  rising  ground,  may  re- 
move the  wetness  from  both.  But  where  the  imper- 
vious stratum  dips,  or  declines  more  to  one  side  of  the 
hill  or  elevation  than  the  other,  the  water  will  be  di- 
rected to  the  more  depressed  side  of  that  stratum  ;  the 
effect  of  which  will  be  that  one  side  of  such  rising 
ground  will  be  wet  and  spongy,  while  the  other  is 
quite  free  from  wetness.* 

*  London  on  Draining. 


DEKP    DRAINAGE.  41 

In  cases  where  the  banks  or  rising  grounds  are  formed 
in  an  irregular  manner  (Fig.  9),  and  from  the  nature 
of  the  situation,  or  the  force  of  the  water  underneath, 
springs  abound  round  the  bases  of  the  protuberances, 
the  ditches  made  for  the  purpose  of  draining  should 
always  be  carried  up  to  a  much  higher  level  in  the 
side  of  the  elevated  ground  than  that  in  which  the 
water  or  wetness  appears,  as  far  even  as  to  the  firm,  un- 
changed land.  By  this  means,  the  water  of  the  spring 
may  be  cut  off,  and  the  ground  completely  drained ; 
which  would  not  be  the  case  if  the  trench  or  drain  were 
formed  on  the  line  of  the  loose  materials  lower  down, 


Fig.  9. 


where  the  water  oozes  out;  which  is  liable  to  mislead 
the  operator  in  forming  the  conducting  trench,  or  that 
which  is  to  convey  the  water  from  the  cross-drain  on  the 
level  of  the  spring  to  the  outlet  or  opening  by  which 
it  is  discharged  (Fig.  9).  But  where  the  main  or 
principal  spring  comes  out  of  a  perpendicular  or  very 


42  DEEP   DKA1XAGK. 

steep  bank,  at  a  great  height  above  the  level  of  the 
outlet  into  which  it  may  discharge  itself  by  means  of 
a  drain,  it  will  neither  be  necessary,  nor  of  any  utility-, 
to  form  a  deep  trench,  or  make  a  covered  drain  all  tho 
way  from  such  outlet  up  to  it ;  as,  from  the  steepness 
of  the  descent,  the  water  would  be  liable,  when  the 
drain  was  thus  cut  from  the  thin  strata  of  sand  and 
other  loose  materials  always  found  in  such  cases,  to 
insinuate  itself  under  the  bricks,  stones,  or  other  sub- 
stances of  which  the  drain  was  formed,  to  undermine 
and  force  them  up  by  the  strength  of  the  current ;  or, 
probably,  in  some  instances,  block  the  drain  up  by  the 
loose  sand,  or  other  matters  which  may  be  forced  away 
or  carried  down  by  it.  In  situations  of  this  kind, 
Johnston  observes,  it  is  always  the  best  way  to  begin 
iust  so  far  down  the  bank  or  declivity  as,  by  cutting  in  a 
level,  the  drain  may  be  six  or  seven  feet  below  the  level 
of  the  spring  ;  or  of  such  a  depth  as  may  be  requisite  to 
bring  down  the  water  to  a  level  suitable  to  convey  it 
away  without  its  rising  to  the  surface,  and  injuring 
the  lands  around  it.  The  rest  of  the  drain,  whether  it 
be  made  in  a  straight  or  oblique  direction,  need  not 
be  deep ;  and  may,  in  many  instances,  be  left  quite 
open ;  it  should,  however,  be  carefully  secured  from 
the  treading  of  cattle,  and,  where  the  land  is  under  an 
arable  system  of  cultivation,  also  from  the  plough. 
Where  it  is  covered,  the  depth  of  about  two  feet  may 
be  sufficient.  There  will  not,  in  such  drains,  be  any 
necessity  for  the  use  of  the  auger  in  any  part  of  them.* 
In  the  cases  of  hills  covered  with  stiff  clay  and  tena- 
cious soils,  where  the  large  quantity  of  water  falling  on 

*  Loudon. 


DEEP   DKAIXAGE. 


their  surface  cannot  sink  into  them,  but  flows  down 
over  the  surface,  the  mode  of  draining  them  is  shown 
by  reference  to  Fig.  10. 

The  hill  in  Fig.  10  being 
supposed  to  be  covered  sad- 
dle-shaped with  an  imper- 
vious stratum  of  clay,  no 
water  can  descend  into  it, 
but  will  flow  over  it :  a  is  the 
clay  stratum  ;  b  also  an  im- 
pervious stratum,  but  not  so 
much  so  as  «,  containing 
veins  of  sand  and  nodules 
of  stones.  It  is  clear  that 
the  whole  extent  of  ground 
from  e  to  b  will  be  wet  on 
the  surface,  and  the  wetness 
will  not  exhibit  itself  in 
bands,  but  be  diffused  in  a 
uniform  mariner  over  the 
whole  surface ;  but  as  &,  in 
this  case,  is  not  so  tenacious 
as  a,  the  side  of  the  hill 
from  e  to  c  will  always  be 
wetter  than  the  flat  ground 
from  c  to  6,  because  some  of 
the  water  will  be  absorbed 
and  kept  out  of  sight  in  the  looser  clay  b.  The  only 
method  of  intercepting  the  large  body  of  water  in  its 
descent  down  d  is  to  cut  the  deep  drain  at  c,  not  only 
sufficiently  large  to  contain  all  the  water  that  may  be 
supplied  from  above  c,  but  so  deep  as  to  catch  any 
oozing  of  water  from  a  toward  b.  What  the  depth  of 


44  DEEP  DRAUSTAGE. 

this  drain  should  be,  it  is  not  easy  to  determine  without 
farther  investigation,  and  to  enable  that  investigation  to 
be  made,  a  large  drain  should  be  cut  on  the  flat  ground 
in  the  line  from  b  to  c,  which  will  also  answer  the  pur- 
pose of  leading  away  the  water  that  will  be  collected 
by  the  transverse  drain  c.  Suppose  the  subsoil  from  b 
to  i  is  four  feet  thick,  then  this  leading  drain  should  be 
made  one-half  foot  deeper,  namely,  four  and  a  half  feet, 
in  order  that  its  sole  may  be  placed  in  impervious 
matter ;  and  in  this  case,  the  drain  c,  of  the  depth  of 
six  feet,  may  suffice  to  keep  the  flat  ground  dry.  But 
if  from  b  to  i  is  eight  or  ten  feet  in  depth,  then  it  would 
be  advisable  to  make  the  leading  drain  from  b  to  c  at 
least  six  feet  deep,  in  order  to  drain  a  large  extent  of 
ground  on  each  side  of  it,  and  the  drain  c  may  still  do 
at  its  former  depth,  namely,  six  feet.  Should  the 
bottom  of  the  leading  drain  get  softer  and  wetter  as  the 
cutting  descends,  its  depth  should  either  be  carried 
down  to  the  solid  clay  at  z,  or  perhaps  it  would  be  well 
to  try  auger  holes  in  the  bottom,  with  the  view  of  ascer- 
taining whether  the  subjacent  water  might  not  rise  to 
and  flow  along  it.  The  expedient  of  boring  will  be 
absolutely  necessary,  if  the  depth  from  b  to  i  decreases 
as  the  distance  from  the  hill  increases,  for  there  would 
be  no  other  way  of  letting  off  the  water  from  the  basin 
of  the  clay  from  i  to  c.  Should  the  flat  ground  be  of 
considerable  extent,  or  should  the  face  of  the  plain  un- 
dulate considerably  from  right  to  left,  a  leading  drain 
will  be  required  in  every  hollow ;  and  each  of  them 
should  be  made  deeper  or  shallower,  according  as  the 
subsoil  is  of  an  open  texture  or  otherwise,  bearing  in 
mind  that  the  bottom  or  sok  of  the  drain  should,  if  pos- 
sible, rest  upon  an  impervious  substance,  otherwise  the 


DEEP  DRAINAGE.  45 

water  will  escape  through  the  pervious  matter,  and  do 
mischief  at  a  lower  level.  The  subsoil  "between  g  and 
h,  being  supposed  to  be  gravel,  or  other  porous  sub- 
stance, it  is  clear  that  110  drain  is  required  at  f  to  pro- 
tect the  soil  between  /  and  g,  as  the  porous  subsoil  will 
absorb  all  the  water  as  it  descends  from  e  to  / 

As  to  the  wet  surface  of  the  hill  itself  c  d  ef,  it  being 
composed  of  impervious  clay,  must  be  dried  on  the 
principle  of  surface-draining ;  that  is,  if  the  ground  is  in 
permanent  pasture,  a  number  of  transverse  open*  sheep 
drains  should  be  made  across  the  face  of  the  hill,  and 
the  water  from  them  conveyed  in  open  ditches  into  the 
great  drain  c  ;  or  if  the  ground  is  under  the  plough,  small 
covered  drains  will  answer  the  purpose  best ;  and  the 
contents  of  these  can  be  emptied  into  the  large  drain  c, 
and  conveyed  down  the  large  leading  drain  to  b.  Thus 
in  Fig.  11,  a  b  is  the  main  drain  along  the  flat  ground 
into  which  the  large  drain  c  b  and  d  b  flow.  It  may 
be  observed  here  that  when  one  large  drain  enters 
another,  the  line  of  junction  should  not  be  at  right 
angles,  but  with  an  acute  angle  in  the  line  of  the  flow 
of  water,  as  at  b.  The  open  surface-drains  in  perma- 
nent pasture  exhibit  the  form  as  represented  in  this 
figure,  where  the  leaders  e  f  and  g  h  are  cut  with  a, 
greater  or  less  slope  down  the  hill  according  to  the 
steepness  of  the  acclivity,  and  the  feeders  across  its 
face  nearly  in  parallel  rows,  into  their  respective  leaders. 
In  this  way  the  water  is  entirely  intercepted  in  its  de- 
scent down  the  hill.  Where  small  drains  enter  larger, 
they  should  not  only  enter  with  an  inclination,  as  re- 
marked above,  but  where  they  come  from  opposite  sides, 

*  See  Chap,  on  different  kinds  of  drains. 


46 


DEEP  DRAINAGE. 


as  in  this  case,  they  should  enter  at  alternate  distance?, 
as  seen  in  the  case  of  the  three  drains  above  f,  and 
not  as  shown  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  drains.  The  largo 

Fig.  11. 


A  PLAN  OF  SHEEP  DKAINS   OS  A  HILL  OP  IMPKBV70C8  SUBSOIL. 

drain  c  b  d  may  either  be  left  open  or  covered.  Should 
it  form  the  line  of  separation  between  arable  ground 
and  permanent  pasture,  it  may  be  left  open,  and  serve 
to  form  a  fence  to  the  hill-pasture ;  but  should  the  en- 
tire rising  ground  be  under  the  plough,  this,  as  also  the 
main  drain  a  b,  and  all  the  small  drains,  should  be 
covered.* 

Where  springs,  or  oozing s  of  water,  rise  around  gravelly 
eminences,  standing  isolated  upon  a  bed  of  clay,  or  other 
impervious  matter,  a  circumvallation  of  drain  around 
the  base  of  the  eminence,  begun  in  the  porous,  and 
carried  into  the  impervious  substance,  having  a  depth 
of  perhaps  from  five  to  seven  feet,  and  connected  with 
a  main  drain  along  the  lowest  quarter  of  the  field,  will 

*  Stephens. 


DEEP  "DRAINAGE.  47 

effectually  dry  all  the  part  of  it  that  was  made  wet  by 
the  springs  or  oozings. 

Bogs  and  marshes  have  been  drained  with  great  effect 
by  Elkington's  method,  which  rested  on  basin-shaped 
hollows  in  clay;  and,  when  this  is  of  considerable 
depth,  the  only  way  of  draining  them  is  by  bringing 
up  a  deep  cut  from  the  lowest  ground,  and  passing  it 
through  the  dam-like  barrier  of  clay.  But  it  not  un- 
frequently  happens,  that  gravel  or  sand  is  found  at  no 
great  depth  below  the  clay  on  which  bogs  rest;  in 
which,  case,  the  most  ready  and  economical  plan,  is  to 
bore  a  hole  or  holes,  in  the  first  instance,  through  the 
clay,  with  an  auger  five  inches  in  diameter,  and,  after 
the  water  has  almost  subsided,  to  finish  the  work  by 
sinking  wells  through  the  >clay,  and  filling  them  up 
with  small  stones,  to  within  two  feet  of  the  top.* 

*  Stephens. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

FREQUENT  OK  THOROUGH  DRAINAGE. 

FREQUENT  or  Thorough.  Drainage  is  effected  by 
means  of  small  drains,  placed  under  ground,  at  short 
distances  from  one  another,  and  into  which  the  water, 
as  it  falls  upon  the  surface,  or  already  present,  finds  its 
way  through  the  porous  soil,  and  by  which  it  is  con- 
veyed by  main  drains,  made  in  connection  with  the 
small,  to  an  outlet. 

This  system  of  drainage  was,  about  the  year  1832, 
brought  prominently  into  notice  by  James  Smith,  Esq., 
of  Deanston,  Sterlingshire,  in  Scotland,  as  providing 
frequent  opportunities,  both  for  the  water  rising  from 
below,  as  well  as  for  that  falling  on  the  surface,  to  pass 
freely  and  completely  off;  and  hence  the  name  of 
Frequent  Draining,  which  has  been  given  it.  Mr. 
Smith  states  that  in  Scotland,  much  more  injury  arises 
to  land  there  from  the  retention  of  rain-water,  than 
from  springs ;  and  he,  by  implication,  treats  Elkington's 
Deep  Drains  as  efficient  for  remedying  wetness  arising 
from  the  latter,  but  the  Thorough  Drainage  as  especially 
applicable  to  the  former,  and  as  effective  for  both,  under 
ordinary  circumstances. 

The  principal  things  for  consideration,  in  order  to 
carry  out  efficiently  the  system  of  frequent  or  thorough 
drainage  of  land,  are : — 

(48) 


FREQUENT  OB  THOROUGH  DRAINAGE.      49 

FIRST. — The  situation  of  the  drains  and  their  fall,  or  the 
inclination  at  which  they  are  to  be  made  to  ensure 
the  ready  passage  of  water  through  them. 
SECOND. — Their  size  and  depth. 
THIRD. — Their  distance  apart. 

As  to  the  situation  of  the  drains,  the  small  drains 
are  distributed  at  intervals  over  the  whole  surface  of 
that  part  of  the  ground  which  requires  drainage,  and 
the  main  drains  into  which  they  empty  themselves 
are  placed  011  the  lowest  part  of  the  ground. 

The  first,  and  a  most  important  question  in  placing 
drains,  is  the  direction  in  which  they  should  run  with 
regard  to  the  inclination  of  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
This  subject  is  another  "vexed  question"  between 
experienced  drainers;  but  certainly  in  this  instance 
the  one  side  of  the  argument  has  undoubtedly  the  ad- 
vantage. This  question  has  been,  whether  the  small 
drains  which  first  collect  and  receive  the  water  from 
the  land  should  be  placed  across  the  slope  of  the  land, 
or  down  the  slope.  -The  latter  is  the  proper  direction. 
Because  in  cutting  drains  across  a  sloping  surface, 
in  cases  where  the  different  substrata  "  crop  out"  upon 
the  slope  (see  Fig.  5,  page  28,)  unless  they  are  put  in  at 
the  precise  point  where  the  substrata  so  crop  out,  (and 
these  are  very  irregular  in  point  of  thickness),  they 
may,  in  a  great  measure,  prove  nugatory.  For  although 
one  drain  is  near  another,  from  the  rise  of  the  ground 
none  of  them  may  reach  the  point  sought,  whereas  in 
carrying  a  drain  up  the  direction  of  a  slope,  it  is  im- 
possible to  miss  the  extremity  of  every  substratum 
passed  through. 

This  view  of  the  direction  of  drains  is  supported  by 
Mr.  Smith,  who  says,  "  drains  drawn  across  a  steep,  cut 
3 


50      FREQUENT  OR  THOROUGH  DRAINAGE. 

the  strata  or  layers  of  subsoil  transversely ;  arid,  as  the 
stratification  generally  lies  in  sheets  at  an  angle  to  the 
surface,  the  water  passing  in  or  between  the  strata, 
immediately  below  the  bottom  of  one  drain,  nearly 
comes  to  the  surface  before  reaching  the  next  lower 
drain.  But  as  water  seeks  the  lowest  level  in  all 
directions,  if  the  strata  be  cut  longitudinally  by  a 
drain  directed  down  the  steeps,  the  bottom  of  which 
cuts  each  stratum  to  the  same  distance  from  the  sur- 
face, the  water  will  flow  into  the  drain  at  the  intersect- 
ing point  of  each  sheet  or  layer,  on  a  level  with  the 
bottom  of  the  drain,  leaving  one  uniform  depth  of  dry 
scat"* 

And  the  accuracy  of  Mr.  Smith's  observations  is 
demonstrated  by  Mr.  Stephens  in  the  following  illus- 
trations and  remarks : 

"  "Without  taking  any  other  element  at  present  into 
the  argument  than  the  single  proposition  in  hydraulics 
that  water  seeks  the  lowest  level  in  all  directions,  I 
shall  prove  the  accuracy  of  Mr.  Smith's  conclusions  by 
simply  referring  to  Fig.  12,  which  represents  a  part  of 
a  field  all  having  the  same,  and  that  a  steep,  declivity, 
and  which  is  laid  off  in  the  ridges  a  b  c  d  ef,  up  and 
down  the  slope ;  but  the  three  ridges  a  b  c  have  drains 
across  them,  and  the  other  three  ridges  have  drains 
parallel  with  them,  the  oblique  drains  being  made  at 
the  same  distance  from  each  other  as  the  up  and  down 
ones,  whatever  that  distance  may  be.  Now,  when  rain 
falls  on  and  is  absorbed  by  the  ridges  a  b  c  d  eft  it  will 
naturally  make  its  way  to  the  lowest  level,  that  is,  to 
the  bottom  of  the  drains ;  and,  as  the  ground  has  the 

*  Smith  on  Thorough  Draining. 


/'  Ur    Trlt 

f  UNIVERSITY 


OF 


AUFQR 


OR   THOROUGH    DRAINAGE. 


51 


same  declivity,  the  water  will  descend  according  to  the 
circumstances  which  are  presented  to  it  by  the  positions 
of  the  respective  systems  of  drains.  On  the  ridges  d  e 


\ 
/ 


f,  having  the  drains  parallel  to  them,  and  up  and  down 
the  inclination  of  the  ground,  the  water  will  take  a 
diagonal  direction  towards  the  bottom  of  the  drains,  as 


52  FKEQUEXT   OK  THOHOUGII   DKAINAGE. 

indicated  by  the  deflected  arrows  at  7c.  Whereas  on 
the  ridges  a  b  c,  which  have  oblique  drains,  a,  /,  g,  Fig. 
12,  the  water  will  have  to  run  in  the  direction  of  the 
arrows  b  and  h,  in  doing  which  it  will  have  to  traverse 
the  entire  breadth  of  the  ground  betwixt  a  and  I  or  I 
and  g,  just  double  the  distance  the  other  drains  have. 
Mr.  Thomson,  of  Hangingside,  Linlithgowshire,  drained 
150  acres  of  land  having  an  inclination  varying  from 
1  in  10  to  1  in  30.  Portions  of  three  fields  had  drains 
put  into  them  in  1828,  1829,  and  1830,  in  the  oblique 
direction,  and,  finding  them  unsuccessful,  he  put  them 
in  the  direction  of  the  slope,  like  the  rest  of  the  fields. 
'In  order,'  says  he,  'to  ascertain  the  cause  of  these 
failures,  a  cut  was  made  in  the  field  first  referred  to, 
entering  at  a  given  point,  and  carrying  forward  a  level 
to  a  considerable  depth,  when  it  was  clearly  seen  that 
the  substrata,  instead  of  taking  in  any  degree  the 
inclination  of  the  surface,  lay  horizontally,  as  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  5.'  "* 

It  will  be  observed,  from  what  has  been  said  relative 
to  the  direction  of  drains  with  regard  to  the  inclination 
of  the  surface,  that  if  the  land  slopes  in  different  direc- 
tions, then  each  plane  of  inclination  should  have  a  system 
of  drainage  for  itself. 

With  regard  to  the  positions  of  the  main  drains,  as 
they  are  intended  to  carry  away  accumulations  of  water 
from  the  smaller,  they  should  occupy  the  lowest  parts  of 
the  land.  If  the  field  is  so  flat  as  to  have  very  little  fall, 
the  water  may  be  drawn  toward  the  main  drains  by 
making  them  deeper  than  the  other  drains,  and  as  deep 
as  the  fall  of  the  outlet  will  allow.  If  the  field  have 

*  Stephens. 


FREQUENT  OR  THOROUGH  DRAINAGE. 


58 


a  uniform  declivity  one  way,  one  main  drain  at  the 
bottom  will  answer  every  purpose ;  but,  should  it 
have  an  undulating  surface,  every  hollow  of  any  ex- 
tent, and  every  deep  hollow  of  however  limited  extent, 
shquld  be  furnished  with  a  main  drain.  No  main  drain 
should  be  put  nearer  than  five  yards  to  any  tree  or 
hedge  that  may  possibly  push  its  roots  toward  it. 

The  small  drains  should  generally  be  placed  nearly 
at  right  angles  to  the  main  drains,  and  in  lines  parallel 
to  each  other,  down  the  declination  of  the  ground ;  not 
that  all  the  drains  of  the  same  field  should  be  parallel 
to  one  another,  but  only  those  in  the  same  plane,  what- 
ever number  of  different  planes  the  field  may  consist 
of.  In  a  field  of  one  plane,  there  can  be  no  difficulty 
in  setting  off  the  small  drains,  as  they  should  all  be 
parallel,  and  all  terminate  in  the  same  main  drain, 
whether  the  field  is  nearly  level  or  has  a  descent. 

Fig.  13. 


PARALLEL  DEAINB  IX  ACCORDANCE  WITH  THE  BLOPF  OF  THE  GEOUND. 

It  is  not  necessary,  in  all  situations,  to  place  the 
small  drains  precisely  at  right  angles  to  the  main  drain. 
Where  the  surface  varies  considerably,  it  will  be  proper 
to  let  the  position  of  the  small  drains  be  adapted  in 


54     FREQUENT  OR  THOROUGH  DRAINAGE. 

places  to  the  fall  of  the  surface.  For  instance,  when  the 
field  has  an  undulating  surface,  a  main  drain  is  carried 
up  the  hollowest  part  of  it,  and  the  small  drains  are 
brought  in  parallels  down  the  inclination  to  it. 

Such  drains  should  be  cut,  as  in  Fig.  18,  up  and  clown 
the  inclined  surface  b  ft,  toward  the  main  drain,  which 
would  occupy  the  line  along  the  points  of  junction  of 
the  drains  b  b. 

The  subjoined  sketch  of  a  field  thoroughly  drained,  as 
to  the  direction  and  position  of  the  drains,  will  eluci- 
date the  foregoing  explanations  :  a  b  is  the  main  drain 
formed  in  the  lowest  head-ridge  ;  and  if  the  field  were 
of  a  uniform  surface,  the  drains  would  run  parallel  to 
one  another  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  into  the  main 
drain,  as  those  do  from  a  to  c,  connected  as  they 
should  be  at  the  top  with  the  drain  d  e  running  along 
the  upper  head-ridge.  But  as  there  may  be  inequali- 
ties in  the  ground,  a  very  irregular  surface  cannot  be 
drained  in  this  manner,  and  must  therefore  be  pro- 
vided with  sub-main  drains,  as  fg  and  h  i,  which  are 
each  connected  with  a  system  of  drains  belonging  to 
itself,  and  which  may  differ  in  character  from  each 
other,  as  fg  with  a  large  double  set  k  I  in  connection 
with  it,  and  h  i  with  only  a  small  single  set  m  ;  the 
sub-main /#  is  supposed  to  run  up  the  lowest  part  of 
a  pretty  deep  hollow  in  the  ground,  and  the  drains 
Jc  and  I  on  either  side  of  it  are  made  to  run  down  the 
faces  of  the  declivities  as  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the 
sub-main  as  the  nature  of  the  inclination  of  the  ground 
will  allow,  so  as  always  to  preserve  the  natural  ten- 
dency of  water  to  find  its  way  down  the  hollow.  There 
is  also  a  supposed  fall  of  the  ground  from  the  height 
above  I  toward  L  which  causes  the  drain  at  m  to  run 


FREQUENT  OK  THOROUGH  DRAINAGE.     55 

down  and  fall  into  what  would  be  a  common  drain  It,  ?', 
were  it  not,  from  this  circumstance,  obliged  to  be  con- 
verted into  a  sub-main.  The  sub-main  f  g  may  be 


made  as  large  as  the  main  drain  a  l>,  as  both  have 
much  to  do  ;  but  the  sub-main  h  i  may  be  made  com- 
paratively smaller,  and  not  larger,  from  the  top  of  the 
field,  than  a  common  drain,  until  it  reaches  the  point 


56     FREQUENT  OK  THOROUGH  DRAINAGE. 

hj  wliere  the  collateral  drains  begin  to  join  it.  The 
main  drain  should  be  made  larger  below  y  to  i  than 
above  it,  and  still  larger  from  i  to  &,  which  is  its  out- 
let. It  will  be  observed  that  all  the  common  drains 
a  and  c,  and  at  I  and  m,  have  their  ends  curved,  those 
at  k  not  requiring  that  assistance,  as  they  enter  more 
obliquely  into  the  main,  from  the  position  of  the  slope 
of  the  ground.  The  dotted  lines  represent  the  upper 
and  lower  head-ridges,  and  the  open  furrows  of  the 
ridges  of  the  field ;  and  it  will  be  observed  that  the 
drains  are  not  made  to  run  in  the  open  farrows  —that 
is,  the  black  lines  in  conjunction  with  the  dotted — but 
along  the  furrow-brows  of  the  ridges.  This  is  done 
with  the  view  of  not  confounding  the  open  furrows  and 
drains  in  the  figure ;  but  it  is  a  plan  which  may  be 
followed  with  propriety  in  subsoils  otherwise  than  of 
strong  clay  ;  that  is,  of  a  light  loam  resting  on  a  rather 
retentive  subsoil ;  the.  water  falling  upon  which  should 
not  be  drained  away  by  the  small  drains  receiving  it 
through  their  tops,  but  rather  by  trie  absorption  of  the 
Avater  toward  them  from  below  the  ploughed  soil,  as 
for  as  the  subsoil  is  porous.  A  hollow,  such  as  that 
occupied  by  the  sub-main  drain  fg,  also  indicates  that 
the  soil  is  a  loam,  and  not  strong  clay.  Although  the 
ridges  are  supposed  to  be  fifteen  feet  wide,  they  bear 
no  true  relation  to  the  size  of  the  field ;  so  that  this 
diagram  should  not  be  considered  as  showing  the  rela- 
tive proportions  of  the  distances  betwixt  the  drains  and 
the  size  of  the  field.  * 

The  fall,  or  angle  of  declination  at  which  drains  are 
constructed,  requires  to  be  guarded,  especially  in  two 
particulars,  either  of  which,  although  opposite  in  their 
*  Stephens. 


FREQUENT  OR  THOROUGH  DRAINAGE.     57 

effects,  are  equally  prejudicial  to  their  efficiency.  1st. 
In  even-surfaced  grounds  there  is  danger  of  their  being 
constructed  too  nearly  on  a  level  to  allow  the  water  to 
flow  freely  through  them ;  2d.  In  hilly  land  there  is 
clanger  of  the  declivity  of  their  position  producing  so 
rapid  a  current  in  wet  seasons  as  to  injure  them  by 
the  friction  of  the  water  on  their  sides  and  bottom,  and 
by  their  becoming  in  consequence  choked  up  by  the 
soil  thereby  loosened,  which  will  often  cause  them  to 
burst,  or  be  blown,  as  it  is  technically  called  by 
drainers. 

Whatever  be  the  kind  of  substance  over  which 
water  flows,  it  has  the  power  of  abrading  it ;  for,  be- 
sides earthy  matter,  it  will  in  time  wear  down  by  fric- 
tion the  hardest  rock.  It  seems,  however,  to  be  a  prev- 
alent opinion,  that  hard  clay  can  for  any  length  of 
time  withstand  the  action  of  water  in  a  drain.  Were 
clay,  indeed,  always  to  retain  the  hardness  it  at  first 
exhibits,  it  would  require  no  protection  from  the 
abrading  action  of  water;  but,  when  it  is  known  that 
it  cannot  possibly  remain  so,  the  safest  practice  is  to 
afford  it  protection  by  a  covering,  such  as  a  flat  stone 
or  tile,  both  of  which  obtain  the  name  of  drain-soles. 
The  effects  usually  produced  by  water  on  clay  subsoils 
are,  that  the  lowest  stratum  of  stones  and  the  tiles  be- 
come imbedded  in  it  to  a  considerable  depth,  as  has 
been  found  to  be  the  case  when  drains  that  have  blown 
have  been  reopened.  In  somewhat  softer  subsoils, 
the  sandy  particles  are  carried  along  with  the  water, 
and  deposited  in  heaps  in  the  curves  and  joinings  of 
drains ;  and,  where  the  subsoil  happens  to  be  more 
sandy  than  clayey,  the  foundation  which  supports  the 
bottom  of  the  drain,  whatever  be  the  material  it  is 

3* 


58 


FREQUENT  OR  THOROUGH  DRAINAGE. 


made  with,  gives  way,  and  the  matter  thus  displaced 
forms  obstructions  at  parts  which  render  the  drain 
above  them  almost  useless.  Water  also  carries  sand 
down  the  sides  of  the  drain,  and,  where  there  is  no 
duct,  deposits  it  among  the  lowest  stratum  of  stones.* 

Fig.  15 


THK  DUTKBKST  FORMS   OP  CONDUITS  IN  TBS  INCLINED  PLANES  OF  DRAINS. 

Should  it  so  happen,  from  the  nature  of  the  ground, 
that  the  fall  in  the  main  drains  is  too  rapid  for  the 
safety  of  the  materials  which  construct  them,  it  is  easy 

*  Stephens. 


FREQUENT  OR  THOROUGH  DRAINAGE.     59 

to  cut  such  a  length  of  the  proper  fall  as  the  extent  of 
the  ground  will  admit — cutting  length  after  length, 
and  joining  every  two  lengths  by  an  inclined  plane. 
The  inclined  planes  could  be  furnished  with  ducts  like 
the  rest  of  the  drain,  or,  what  is  better,  in  order  to 
break  the  force  of  the  water,  like  steps  or  stairs,  of 
brick  or  stone  masonry,  built  dry.  Fig.  15  will  illus- 
trate this  method  at  once,  where  a  b  represents  the  line 
of  the  lowest  fall  that  can  be  obtained  for  a  main  drain 
in  a  field;  but  which  is  very  considerable,  and  much 
more  so  than  a  main  drain  should  have  which  has  to 
convey  a  quantity  of  water.  To  lessen  the  fall,  let 
the  drain  be  cut  in  the  form  represented  by  the  line 
c  h,  which  consists  of,  first,  a  level  part  at  the  highest 
end,  c  d;  then  of  an  inclined  plane,  d  e ;  again  of  a 
level  part,  ef;  again  of  an  inclined  plane,  /  g  ;  and, 
lastly,  of  a  less  level  part,  g  h,  to  allow  the  water  to 
flow  rapidly  away  at  the  outlet ;  and  this  part  may  be 
parallel  with  the  inclination  of  the  ground.* 

In  the  case  of  level  grounds,  as  main-drains  occupy 
the  lowest  parts,  the  fall  in  them  cannot  be  so  great 
as  in  other  parts  of  the  field.  In  such  cases,  the  fall  may 
entirely  depend  on  cutting  them  deeper  at  the  lowest 
end;  but,  when  the  fall  is  small,  the  duct  should 
be  larger  than  when  it  is  considerable;  because  the 
same  body  of  water  will  require  a  longer  time  to  flow 
away.  "  People  frequently  complain,"  says  Mr.  Smith, 
"that  they  cannot  find  a  sufficient  fall,  or  level,  as  they 
sometimes  term  it,  to  carry  off  the  water  from  their 
drains.  There  are  few  situations  where  a  sufficient  fall 
cannot  be  found,  if  due  pains  are  exercised.  It  has 
been  found  in  practice,  that  a  water-course,  thirty  feet 
*  Stephens. 


GO     FREQUENT  OR  THOROUGH  DRAINAGE. 

wide  aud  six  feet  deep,  giving  a  transverse  sectional 
area  of  180  square  feet,  will  discharge  800  cubic  yards 
of  water  per  minute,  and  will  flov\'  at  the  rate  of  one 
mile  per  hour,  with  a  fall  of  no  more  than  six  inches 
per  mile."  On  the  principle  of  the  acceleration  of  water 
from  drains,  main  drains,  where  practicable,  should  be 
six  inches  deeper  than  those  which  fall  into  them ;  and 
the  greater  depth  has  the  additional  advantage  of 
keeping  the  drains  clear  of  sand,  mud,  or  other  sub- 
stances which  might  lodge,  and  not  only  impede,  but 
dam  back  the  water  in  the  drains. 

Should  the  fall  from  the  mouth  of  the  main  drain  to  a 
river  be  too  small,  and  there  be  risk,  at  times,  of  the 
overflowings  of  the  river  sending  back-water  into  the 
drain,  the  drain  should  be  carried  down  as  far  by  the 
side  of  the  river,  as  will  secure  a  sufficient  fall  for  the 
outlet.  Kather  be  at  the  expense  of  carrying  the  drain 
under  a  mill-course  or  rivulet,  than  permit  back-water 
to  enter  it.* 

We  now  proceed  to  inquire  the  depth  to  which  drains 
should  be  cut,  and  their  size.  These  two  branches  of 
the  subject  depending,  to  some  extent,  the  one  on  the 
other,  will  be  best  considered  together.  Mr.  Stephens 
thus  speaks  of  the  size  of  drains :  "  A  drain  is  not  a 
mere  ditch  for  conveying  away  water ;  were  it  only  this, 
its  size  would  be  easily  determined  by  calculation,  or 
experiment,  of  the  quantity  of  water  it  would  have  to 
convey  in  a  given  time.  But  the  principal  function  of 
a  drain  is  to  draw^  water  toward  it  from  every  direc- 

*  Stephens. 

f  The  term  "  draw"  although  in  common  use  with  drainers,  is  in- 
accurate, as  it  indicates  a  condition  in  a  drain  implying  a  force  to 
attract  water  towards  it.  What  is  really  meant  by  it,  is  the  greater 


FREQUENT  OR  THOROUGH  DRAINAGE.      61 

tion ;  and  its  secondary  purpose  is  to  convey  it  away 
when  collected ;  though  both  properties  are  required  to 
be  present,  to  insure  the  drain  performing  its  entire 
functions.  These  being  its  functions,  it  is  obvious  that 
the  greater  the  area  its  sides  can  present  to  the  matter 
out  of  which  it  draws  water,  it  should  prove  the  more 
efficacious ;  and  it  is  also  obvious,  that  this  efficiency  is 
not  so  much  dependent  upon  the  breadth,  as  upon  the 
depth  of  the  drain ;  so  that,  other  things  being  equal,  the 
deeper  a  drain  is.  it  should  prove  the  more  efficient. 
Now,  what  are  the  circumstances  that  necessarily  regu- 
late the  depth  of  drains  ?  In  the  first  place,  the  culture 
of  the  ground  affects  it ;  for  were  land  never  ploughed, 
but  in  perpetual  pasture,  no  more  earth  than  would 
support  the  pasture  grasses,  would  be  required  over  a 
drain,  and  this  need  not,  perhaps,  exceed  three  inches  in 
depth.  The  plough,  however,  requires  more  room ;  for 
the  ordinary  depth  of  a  furrow-slice  is  seldom  less  than 
seven  inches,  and,  in  cross-furrowing,  eight  inches  are 
reached,  and  two  inches  more  than  that,  or  ten  inches 
in  all,  may  suffice  for  ordinary  ploughing ;  but,  in  some 
instances,  land  is  ploughed  with  four  horses  instead  of 
two,  in  which  case  the  furrow  will  reach  twelve  inches 
in  depth,  so  that  fourteen  inches  of  depth  will  be 
required  to  place  the  materials  of  the  drain  beyond  the 
danger  of  an  extraordinary  furrow.  But  farther  still, 
subsoil  and  trench  ploughing  are  sometimes  practiced, 
and  these  penetrate  to  sixteen  inches  below  the  surface, 

facility  presented  by  the  porous  material  of  the  drain  for  water  to 
rim  into  it ;  and  it  is  on  that  account  that  the  drains  are  filled  for 
some  distance  above  the  water-passage,  or  duct,  with  stones  or 
porous  material ;  but  it  will  be  seen,  in  the  subsequent  pages,  that 
the  capacity  of  drains  to  act  in  this  way,  is  now  much  disputed. 


62      FREQUENT  OR  THOROUGH  DRAINAGE. 

so  that  eighteen  inches  of  earth,  at  least,  you  thus  see, 
will  require  to  be  left  on  the  top  of  a  drain,  to  place  its 
materials  beyond  the  dangers  arising  from  ploughing. 
This  depth  having  been  thus  determined  by  reference 
to  practice,  it  should  not  be  regarded  as  a  source  from 
which  a  supply  of  moisture  is  afforded  to  the  drain  by 
its  drawing  power,  the  water  only  passing  through  it 
by  absorption  ;  for  it  is  certain  that  ploughed  land  will 
absorb  moisture,  whether  there  be  any  drain  below  it 
or  not.  The  drawing  portion  of  the  drain  must,  there- 
fore, lie  entirely  below  eighteen  inches  from  the  surface. 
Now,  it  will  be  requisite  to  make  the  drain  below  this 
as  deep  as  will  afford  a  sufficient  area  for  drawing 
powers  of  the  lowest  degree  among  subsoils.  And 
what  data  do  we  possess  to  determine  this  critical 
point  ?  In  the  first  place,  it  is  evident  that  a  subsoil 
of  porous  materials  will  exhaust  all  its  water  in  a 
shorter  time  than  one  of  an  opposite  nature.  Judging 
from  observation,  I  should  say,  that  one  inch  thick  of 
porous  material?,  will  discharge  as  much  water,  in  a 
given  time,  as  "six  inches  of  a  tilly,  or  any  number  of 
inches  of  a  truly  tenacious  subsoil.  What  conclusions, 
then,  ought  we  to  draw  from  these  data  ?  Certainly 
these :  that  no  depth,  beyond  the  iipper  eighteen  inches 
farther  than  what  is  required  for  the  materials  of  the 
drain,  will  draw  water  from  a  truly  tenacious  subsoil, 
and  that  it  is,  therefore,  unnecessary  to  go  any  deeper 
in  such  a  subsoil ;  that  it  is  also  unnecessary  to  go  any 
deeper  in  a  subsoil  of  porous  materials,  because  a  small 
depth  in  it  will  draw  freely  ;  and  that  it  is  only  requisite 
to  go  deeper  in  the  intermediate  kinds  of  subsoil.  Still, 
you  have  to  inquire  what  should  be  the  specific  depths 
in  each  of  these  cases?  In  the  case  of  really  tenacious 


FKEQUENT  OR  THOROUGH  DRAINAGE.      63 

subsoil,  the  size  of  the  duct  for  the  water  depends  on 
the  quantity  to  pass  through  it ;  but,  giving  the  largest 
allowance  of  six  inches,  with  a  sole  beneath  and  cover- 
ing above,  one  foot  seems  ample  depth  for  these  mate- 
rials to  occupy,  so  that  a  drain  of  two  and  a  half  feet 
seems  sufficient  for  the  circumstances  attending  such  a 
subsoil,  that  is,  its  minimum  depth,  which,  in  such  a 
case,  may  also  be  held  to  be  a  maximum.  In  the  case 
of  a  porous  subsoil,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the 
preservation  of  its  loose  materials  in  their  proper  posi- 
tion, to  have  a  lining  of  artificial  materials  as  far  as 
these  extend ;  and  as  such  a  lining  can  hardly  be  con- 
structed of  sufficient  strength  of  less  depth  -than  one 
foot,  it  follows  that  two  and  a  half  feet  is  the  minimum 
depth  also  in  such  a  subsoil ;  but  there  is  this  diiference 
betwixt  this  subsoil  and  the  tenacious  one,  that  the 
porous  may  be  made  as  deep  as  you  please,  provided 
you  apply  sufficient  materials  for  the  support  of  the 
loose  materials.  With  regard  to  tilly  subsoils,  since 
one  foot  is  requisite  for  the  safety  of  the  filling  mate- 
rials, it  does  not  seem  an  overstretch  of  liberality  to 
give  six  inches  more  for  extension  of  the  drawing  sur- 
face, so  that  the  minimum  depth,  in  this  case,  seems  to 
be  three  feet,  and  as  much  more  as  the  peculiar  state 
of  the  subsoil,  in  regard  to  tenacit}^  and  porosity,  will 
warrant  you  to  go." 

"  The  next  step  is  to  fix  the  depth  of  drain  most  suit- 
able for  draining  the  particular  field  ;  and  this  can  only 
be  done  by  having  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  nature 
of  its  subsoil.  I  have  already  given  reasons  for  fixing 
the  minimum  depth  of  drains  in  the  different  kinds  of 
subsoil ;  but,  as  the  reasoning  given  there  only  estab- 
lishes the  principle,  it  is  not  sufficient  to  determine  the 


64      FREQUENT  OR  THOROUGH  DRAINAGE. 

most  proper  depth  for  every  peculiarity  of  circum- 
stances ;  for  this  must  be  determined  by  the  nature  of 
the  subsoil  which  guides  the  whole  affair.  If  the  field 
present  an  uniform  surface,  but  inclining,  let  at  least 
two  exploratory  drains  be  cut  from  the  bottom  to  the 
top  of  the  field,  if  its  extent  does  not  exceed  ten  acres, 
and  as  many  more  as  it  is  proportionally  larger;  and  if 
the  subsoil  of  both  is  found  at  once  tilly,  that  is,  draw- 
ing a  little  water,  let  the  cut  be  made  three  feet  deep 
without  hesitation.  On  proceeding  up  the  rising  ground, 
the  depth  may  be  increased  to  four  feet,  to  ascertain  if 
that  depth  will  not  draw  a  great  deal  more  water  than 
the  other.  Should  the  subsoil  prove  of  porous  mate- 
rials, two  and  a  half  feet — the  minimum — may  suffice  ; 
though,  on  going  up  the  rising  ground,  it  may  be  in- 
creased to  three  feet,  to  see  the  effect ;  but  should  it, 
on  the  other  hand,  prove  a  pure  tenacious  clay,  two 
feet  will  suffice  at  first,  increasing  the  depth  in  the  ris- 
ing ground  to  two  and  a  half  and  even  three  feet ;  for 
it  may  turn  out  that  the  stratum  under  the  tenacious 
clay  is  porous.  Where  the  surface  is  in  small  undula- 
tions, the  drain  should  be  cut  right  through  both  the 
flat  and  rising  parts.  In  very  flat  ground,  any  consid- 
erable variation  of  depth  is  impracticable,  and  only 
allowable  to  preserve  the  fall.  From  such  experi- 
mental drains  data  should  be  obtained  to  fix  the  proper 
dimensions  of  the  other  drains/' 

u  If  you  find  the  substratum  pretty  much  alike  in  all 
the  experimental  drains,  you  may  reasonably  conclude 
that  the  subsoil  of  the  whole  field  is  nearly  alike,  and 
that  all  the  drains  should  be  of  the  same  depth ;  but, 
should  the  subsoil  prove  of  different  natures  in  differ- 
ent pa,rts,  then  the  drain  should  be  made  of  the  depth 


FREQUENT  OR  THOROUGH  DRAINAGE.      65 

best  suited  to  the  nature  of  the  subsoil.  A  correct 
judgment,  however,  of  the  true  nature  of  the  subsoil, 
cannot  be  formed  immediately  on  opening  a  cut ;  time 
must  be  given  to  the  water  in  the  adjoining  ridges  to 
find  its  way  to  the  drain,  which,  when  it  has  reached, 
will  satisfactorily  show  the  place  which  supplies  the 
most  water  ;  and,  if  one  set  of  men  open  all  the  cuts, 
by  the  time  the  last  one  has  been  finished,  the  first  will 
probably  have  exhibited  its  powers  of  drawing ;  for  it 
is  a  fact  that  drains  do  not  exhibit  their  powers  until 
some  hours  after  they  have  been  opened.  When  you 
are  satisfied  that  the  drains  have  drawn  in  dry  weather 
as  much  water  as  they  can,  you  will  be  able  to  see 
whether  or  not  the  shallowest  parts  have  drawn  as 
much  as  the  deepest ;  and  you  should  then  determine 
on  cutting  the  remainder  to  the  depth  which  has  oper- 
ated most  effectually.  If  rainy  weather  ensue  during 
the  experiment,  still  you  can  observe  the  comparative 
effects  of  the  drains,  and  abide  by  the  results.  Never 
mind  though  parts  of  the  sides  of  the  cuts  fall  down 
during  dry  or  wet  weather ;  they  need  not  be  regret- 
ted, as  they  afford  excellent  indications  of  the  nature 
of  the  subsoil,  the  true  structure  of  which  being  left 
by  the  fall  in  a  much  better  state  for  examination  than 
where  cut  by  the  spade ;  and  you  may  then  observe 
whether  most  water  is  coming  out  of  the  highest  or 
lowest  part  of  the  subsoil.  It  is  essential  for  the  du- 
rability of  drains  to  bear  in  mind  that  they  should 
always  stand,  if  practicable,  upon  impervious  matter, 
to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  water  from  the  drain  by 
any  other  channel  than  the  duct."* 

*  Stephens. 


66  FREQUENT   Oil   THOROUGH    DHAINAGE. 

With  reference  to  the  size  of  drains,  upon  the  thor- 
ough drainage  principle,  it  is  considered  that  for  the 
small  drains,  tiles  of  two  inches  diameter  in  the  bore  are 
large  enough  to  carry  off  any  quantity  of  water  that  is 
practically  found  to  be  present  after  the  wetest  seasons. 
And  with  regard  to  main  or  other  drains  for  cutting 
off  springs,  &c.,  their  size  must  be  regulated  by  the 
quantity  of  water  to  be  discharged.  It  has  been 
proved  in  practice  that  a  water  course  thirty  feet  wide 
and  six  feet  deep  will  discharge  300  cubic  yards  of  wa- 
ter per  minute,  and  will  flow  at  the  rate  of  one  mile 
per  hour  with  a  fall  of  only  six  inches  per  mile.  For 
thorough  main  drains,  Smith  says,  with  a  fall  of  not 
less  than  one  foot  in  100  yards,  a  drain  ten  inches 
wide  and  twelve  inches  deep,  will  void  the  rain  water 
from  100  acres. 

The  distance  apart  at  which  drains  should  be  con- 
structed remains  for  us  to  consider.  It  will  be  evident 
that  the  distance  of  drains  from  each  other,  involves 
materially  the  question  of  the  expense  of  making 
them;  and  that  the  object  therefore  is  to  place  them  at 
as  great  a  distance  apart  as  they  can  be  placed,  to  be 
truly  effective.  Upon  this  point  Mr.  Stephens  says : 

"  The  distance  that  should  be  left  between  the  drains 
can  only  be  satisfactorily  determined  after  the  depths 
of  the  drains  have  been  fixed  upon,  as  drains  in  a  porous 
substratum,  which  draw  water  from  a  long  distance, 
need  not,  of  course,  be  placed  so  close  together  as 
where  the  substratum  yields  water  in  small  quantities ; 
and  as  drains  may  be  of  different  depths  in  the  same 
field,  according  to  the  draining  powers  of  the  substrat- 
um, so  they  should  be  placed  at  different  distances  in 
the  same  field. 


FREQUENT   OR   THOROUGH    DRAINAGE.  67 

"  In  a  partially  impervious  subsoil,  fifteen  feet  are  as 
great  a  distance  as  a  3-feet  drain  can  be  expected  to 
draw ;  and,  in  some  cases,  a  4-feet  one  will  be  required. 
In  more  porous  matter,  a  3-feet  drain  will  probably 
draw  twenty  feet,  with  as  great  effect ;  and  in  the  case 
of  a  mouldy,  deep  soil,  resting  on  an  impervious  sub- 
soil— a  drain  passing  through  the  mould,  and  resting 
four  inches  in  the  impervious  clay — which  may  altoge- 
ther make  it  four  feet  deep — will  draw,  probably,  a 
distance  of  thirty  feet." 

Mr.  Stephens  further  says,  in  speaking  of  drains  for 
stiff  clay : 

"  I  know  it  is  a  common  impression  among  farmers, 
that  if  a  subsoil  cannot  draw  water,  there  is  no  use  of 
making  drains  in  it,  and  this  opinion  I  conceive  to  bo 
quite  correct  in  regard  to  pure  clay  subsoils,  which 
cannot  draw  water  at  all.  But  the  view  I  take  of  the 
matter  is  this,  that  pure  c\&y  subsoils  are  very  limited 
in  extent,  and  that  many  clays  which  seem  quite  im- 
pervious may  draw  water  notwithstanding.  Admit- 
ting that  the  subsoil  draws  water  at  all,  which  is  the 
supposition  in  the  present  case,  it  is  clear  that  the 
larger  the  area  is  extended  for  drawing  it,  the  more 
water  will  be  drawn  into  the  drain.  Now,  a  large  area 
can  only  be  secured  by  making  drains  deep  and  close 
together ;  and  in  the  case  supposed  above,  it  appears  to 
me  that  three  feet  in  depth,  with  fifteen  feet  asunder, 
will  not  give  a  greater  area  than  is  requisite  for  drawing 
water  out  of  such  ground.  When,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  subsoil  is  free,  and  discharges  water  as  freely,  so 
large  an  area  is  not  required  to  dry  the  subsoil,  and 
drains  of  less  depth  and  at  greater  distance  will 
answer  the  same  purpose  as  in  the  other  case,  such  as 


63 


FREQUENT  OR  THOROUGH  DRAINAGE. 


thirty  inches  in  depth  and  thirty  feet  asunder.  You 
must  endeavor  to  make  the  depths  and  distances  of  the 
small  drains  suit  the  nature  of  the  subsoil,  for  it  is  im- 
possible for  me  to  lay  down  here  any  absolute  rule  in 
a  matter  which  admits  of  such  diversity  of  character." 

The  disadvantage  of  a  mistaken  economy  in  the  con- 
struction of  thorough  or  frequent  drains  too  far  apart, 
has  been  thus  pointed  out : 

Conceiving  that  a  drain  in  every  furrow,  in  a  tilly 
subsoil,  is  attended  with  more  expense  than  any  in- 
crease of  produce  would  warrant,  a  farmer  in  East 

Fig.  16. 


da 


ad 


THE  EFFECTS   OF  TOO   GREAT   A  DISTANCE  BETWIXT  DRAINS. 

Lothian  put  a  drain  in  e  very  fourth  furrow;  and  he 
caused  them  to  be  cut  four  feet  deep.  A  figure  will 
best  illustrate  the  results  where  the  black  lines  a,  Fig. 
16,  are  the  drains  between  every  fourth  furrow,  and 
the  dotted  lines  represent  the  intermediate  undrained 
furrows ;  and  where  it  is  evident,  at  the  first  glance, 


FREQUEXT  OR  THOROUGH  DRAINAGE.      69 
i 

that  the  drains  a  have  to  dry  two  ridges -on  each  side 
b  c  and  d  e,  of  which  we  should  expect  that  the  two 
ridges  b  and  d,  being  nearest  to  a,  should  be  more  dried, 
in  the  same  time,  than  the  two  farthest  ridges  c  and  c, 
and  the  result  agrees  with  expectation ;  but  still,  had 
the  subsoil  been  of  an  entirely  porous  nature,  both 
ridges  might  have  been  sufficiently  dried  by  a.  But 
mark  the  results  of  this  particular  experiment.  The 
two  ridges  b  and  o?,  nearest  to  a,  actually  produced  nine 
bushels  of  corn  more  per  acre  than  the  two  more  distant 
ridges  c  and  e.  This  is  a  great  difference  of  produce 
from  adjoining  grounds  under  the  same  treatment,  and 
yet  it  does  not  show  the  entire  advantage  that  may  be 
obtained  by  drained  over  undrained  land,  because  it  is 
possible  that  the  drain  a  also  partially  drained  the  dis- 
tant ridges  c  and  e ;  and  this  being  possible,  together 
with  the  circumstance  that  none  of  the  ridges  had  a 
drain  on  each  side,  it  cannot  be  maintained  that  either 
the  absolute  or  the  comparative  drying  power  of  these 
four-feet  drains  was  exactly  ascertained  by  this  experi- 
ment.* It  may  be  conceived,  however,  that  if  the 
drains  had  been  put  into  every  other,  instead  of  every 
fourth  furrow,  that  the  produce  of  all  the  ridges  would 
have  been  alike,  inasmuch  as  every  ridge  would  then 
have  been  placed  in  the  same  relative  position  to  a 
drain. 

The  above  lengthened  quotations  from  Mr.  Stephens' 
able  paper  on  Drainage,  have  been  given  because  they 
express  well  the  opinions  of  the  advocates  of  the  sys- 
tem of  frequent  drainage,  recommended  by  Smith  of 
Deanston ;  and  together  with  the  preceding  observa- 

*  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol,  viii. 


70      FKEQUENT  OR  THOROUGH  DRAINAGE. 

tions  on  the  situation  of  drains,  and  their  depth  and 
distance,  they  set  forth  the  principles  on  which  the  sys- 
tem is  founded.  For  many  years  after  its  introduction 
by  Smith,  his  system  to  a  great  extent  superseded  the 
use  of  Elkington's  deep  drainage,  and  by  many  emi- 
nent men  this  is  still  held  to  be  the  perfection  of  drain- 
age for  all  land  with  stiff  subsoils.  There  has  sprung 
up,  however,  within  the  last  few  years,  a  class  of  drain- 
ing engineers,  of  equal  eminence  and  experience,  who 
are  very  strenuous  in  their  recommendation  of  a  modi- 
fication of  the  above  plan.  This  subject  has  been 
before  referred  to,  and  this  seems  the  fitting  place,  as 
there  appears  much  truth  in  what  these  gentlemen 
advance,  to  introduce  their  opinion  and  advice  to  the 
reader. 

The  gentlemen  alluded  to,  found  their  recommenda- 
tions upon  an  opinion  that  the  supposition  that  the 
sides  of  drains  "  draw"  water  into  them  is^  erroneous ; 
(see  note,  page  60,)  and  that  all  the  water  from  the  sur- 
face sinks  perpendicularly,  (or  as  nearly  so  as  the  hete- 
rogeneous nature  of  the  substrata  may  permit,)  and 
enters  the  drain  at  its  bottom  only.  They  do  not  differ 
materially  from  Smith's  system  as  to  the  position  of  the 
drains  which  they  consider  should  go  up  and  down  the 
slope,  but  they  advise  that  in  deep  soils  four  feet  should 
be  the  minimum  depth,  and  that  they  may  be  placed  at 
from  twenty  to  fifty  feet,  or  in  some  soils  much  further 
apart ;  the  stiffness  of  the  soil  in  some  situations  requir- 
ing them  nearer  together  than  in  others. 

Mr.  Josiah  Parkes  originated  this  departure  (which 
in  some  respects  leans  to  the  Elkington  deep  drainage, 
but  is  still  distinct  from  it,)  from  Smith's  plan,  and  at 
present  it  is  upheld  by  Mr.  J.  Bailey  Denton  and  Mr. 


FREQUENT  OK  THOROUGH  DRAINAGE.      71 

Hewitt  Davis,  two  of  the  most  successful  draining  engi- 
neers of  the  day,  arid  by  very  many  others — both  scien- 
tific and  practical  men ;  and  although  Smith's  old  plan 
is  by  no  means  in  want  of  experienced  and  intelligent 
supporters  amongst  the  same  class  of  men,  the  weight 
of  evidence  appears  to  uphold  the  correctness  of  the 
opinion  that  Parkes  has  put  forward.  Another  feature 
that  Mr.  J.  B.  Denton  (who  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the 
most  talented  of  the  disputants)  advises  is,  that  always 
keeping  the  course  of  the  small  drains  with  the  slope 
of  the  surface,  they  should  not  be  confined  to  that  per- 
fect uniformity  of  relative  position  which  is  adopted  by 
Smith,  (and  which  Mr.  Denton  has  termed  the  "  Grid- 
iron plan,")  but  that  where  the  character  of  the  soil 
alters  so  as  to  be  more  open  and  porous  in  one  part  of 
a  field  than  in  another,  and  where  the  surface  level 
varies  materially,  that  the  position  and  relative  dis- 
tance of  the  drains  should  be  varied  also,  so  that  cut- 
ting useless  drains  may  be  avoided;  but  the  direction 
with  the  slope  still  retained. 

These  remarks  will  show  that  the  cutting  and  mode 
of  constructing  the  drainage  is  the  same,  whichever 
opinion  of  these  two  classes  of  drainers  be  acted  upon ; 
and  that  it  is  only  to  be  looked  at  upon  the  question 
of  principle  as  to  comparative  efficiency. 

The  plan  of  frequent  drainage  as  advanced  by  Mr. 
Smith,  was  first  put  forward  in  consequence  of  the  in- 
discriminate adoption  of  Elkington's  deep  drainage  in 
all  situations,  being  found  to  fail  in  many  instances ; 
although  it  is  well  supposed  that  in  some  of  those  cases 
the  fault  was  rather  in  the  want  of  judgment  in  its  ap- 
plication than  in  the  system  itself.  Adhering  to  the 
beneficial  parts  of  Mr.  Smith's  system,  Parkes  and  his 


72  FREQUENT   Oil   THOROUGH   DRAINAGE. 

followers  of  the  present  day  differ  from  him  as  to  the 
way  in  which  the  drainage  is  effected ;  that  is,  whether 
the  drains  "  draw"  towards  their  sides  the  water  in  its 
passage  downwards  from  the  surface,  or  whether  the 
bulk  of  the  water  passes  down  to  a  given  depth  (regu- 
lated by  the  depth  of  the  drains  as  deeper  drainers  con- 
tend), and  so  enters  the  drains  at  their  base.  And 
acting  upon  the  belief  (which  seems  the  correct  one) 
that  it  does  so,  they  consider  that  there  is  a  saving  of 
expense,  and  also  a  more  beneficial  result  to  be  at^ 
tained,  by  a  deeper  position  of  the  drains,  than  by 
that  advanced  by  Mr.  Smith. 

This  result  they  do  not  attribute  simply  to  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  drainage,  but  also  to  the  principle  of  con- 
verting the  water  falling  on  the  surface  into  an  agent 
for  fertilizing  the  ground,  by  its  passage  through  a 
greater  depth,  and  in  its  passage  imparting  to  the  par- 
ticles of  soil  certain  elements  of  nutrition  for  vegeta- 
tion which  it  is  known  to  contain. 

A  review  of  the  opinions  of  the  most  eminent  drain- 
ing engineers  of  the  present  day,  and  a  comparison  of 
the  various  systems  practiced,  with  the  history  of  their 
gradual  introduction  and  operation,  undoubtedly  leads 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  most  perfect  manner  of 
draining  now  practiced  is  by  Elkingtc-n's  system  for 
the  cutting  and  removal  of  springs,  and  subterraneous 
accumulations  of  water  by  boring,  in  some  situations 
combined  with  the  frequent  or  thorough  draining  sys- 
tem upon  the  deep  principle  advocated  by  Mr.  Bailey 
Denton;  and  in  other  places,  that  which  adopts  the 
latter  system  alone,  modified  as  regards  the  distance  of 
the  drains  apart  by  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  the  con- 
formation of  the  surface  to  be  drained. 


CHAPTER      V. 

SURFACE    DRAINAGE. 

SURFACE  DRAINAGE  consists  in  cutting  channels  or 
ditches,  which  are  left  open  at  the  top  for  the  water  to 
run  off.  As  compared  with  the  systems  before  de- 
scribed, this  one  is  very  deficient. 

Open  drains,  unless  cut  sufficiently  deep  to  act  on 
the  principle  of  sub-surface  drains,  cannot  so  completely 
relieve  the  soil  from  the  surplus  water  contained  in  it. 
They  require,  also,  to  be  constantly  cleaned  out  and 
repaired,  as,  from  their  exposure  to  all  the  vicissitudes 
of  the  weather,  they  are  liable  to  fill  up  more  or  less. 
And  they  occasion  a  great  loss  of  land,  from  the  large 
aggregate  area  of  their  open  surface.  There  are  some 
situations  where,  on  account  of  their  less  cost,  they 
may  be  used,  and  others  in  which,  in  recently  reclaimed 
lands,  or  on  the  score  of  difficulty  in  obtaining  labor 
for  more  efficient  works,  the  plan  may  nevertheless  be 
adopted  temporarily,  if  not  permanently. 

This  mode  of  draining  does  not  profess  to  interfere 
with  any  water  that  exists  under  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  farther  than  what  percolates  through  the 
ploughed  furrow-slices,  and  makes  its  way  into  the  open 
furrows  of  the  ridges.  For  the  purpose  of  facilitating 
the  descent  of  water  into  the  open  furrows,  the  ridges 
are  kept  in  a  bold,  rounded  form  ;  and  that  the  open 
4  (73> 


74  SURFACE   DRAINAGE. 

furrows  may  be  suitable  channels  for  water,  they  are 
cleared  out  with  the  plough  after  the  land  has  been 
otherwise  finished  off  with  a  crop.'  The  small  channels 
cut  with  the  spade  are  made  through  every  natural  hol- 
low of  the  ground,  however  slight,  and  the  water-fur- 
rows cleared  into  them  at  the  points  of  intersection. 
The  cuts  are  continued^  along  the  lowest  head-ridge 
furrow,  and  cut  across  the  hollowest  parts  of  the  head- 
ridge  into  the  adjacent  open  ditch.  The  recipient  ditch 
forms  an  important  part  of  this  system  of  draining,  by 
conveying  away  the  collected  waters,  and  is  made  four 
or  five  feet  in  depth,  with  a  proportional  width.  It  is 
immediately  connected  with  a  larger  open  ditch,  which 
discharges  the  accumulated  waters  from  a  number  of 
recipient  ditches  into  the  river  or  lake,  or  other  recep- 
tacle which  is  taken  advantage  of  for  the  purpose.  The 
large  ditch  is  from  six  to  ten  feet  in  depth,  with  a 
proportional  width.  It  is  evident  this  is  a  system  only 
applicable  to  soils  that  retain  water  for  a  long  time  on 
the  surface. 

The  principles  before  described  for  sub-surface  drain- 
age, as  to  the  situation  and  direction,  apply  nearly 
equally  well  to  open  drains.  The  damage  to  open 
drains  from  friction  by  the  water,  and  the  sand,  and 
other  matters  held  in  suspension  by  it,  is  much  greater 
in  open  than  in  covered  drains.  It  will  %be  found  ad- 
vantageous, in  cases  where  large  quantities  of  water 
are  likely  to  pass  through  open  drains,  to  cut  the  bot- 
tom of  them  in  a  semi-circular  form,  and  wide  in  pro- 
portion to  their  depth ;  because,  the  quantity  of  water 
passing  through  being  the  same,  the  abrasion  is  less  on 
the  bottom  of  a  wide  drain  than  in  a  narrow  one,  owing 
to  the  shorter  height  of  the  superincumbent  column  of 


SURFACE   DRAINAGE.  75 

water  on  any  given  part  of  the  bottom.  In  some  parts 
of  the  south  of  England,  where,  for  particular  local 
reasons,  open  drainage  is  used,  open  ditches,  six  or 
eight  feet  wide,  are  employed,  instead  of  fences,  which 
in  some  measure  lessens  the  loss  of  the  land  occupied 
by  them. 

In  the  adoption  of  this  description  of  drainage,  as  its 
operation  is  always  open  to  observation,  the  first  cut- 
ting of  them  need  not  be  on  an  extensive  scale,  be- 
cause it  is,  of  course,  easy  to  add  to  the  number  at  any 
time,  if  those  formed  are  found  inadequate  to  the  pur- 
pose intended. 

One  of  the  most  useful  ways  in  which  open  drainage 
can  be  made  available,  is  in  the  reclaiming  of  salt  marsh 
lands,  in  which,  from  the  great  extent  generally  of  the 
surface  at  which  the  wetness  enters  upon  the  land,  it  is 
desirable  that  the  drainage  should  remain  open  until 
it  be  ascertained  by  experience  that  it  is  sufficient  for 
the  intended  purpose.  Afterwards,  if  wished,  it  may 
have  ducts  built,  and  be  converted  into  under-drainage. 


:P.A.;RT  n. 

PKACTICAL  INSTRUCTIONS  FOE  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF 
DRAINAGE. 

THE  examination  of  the  land  having  been  made,  and 
the  kind  of  drains  being  determined  on,  the  practical 
operations  of  the  drainer  commence. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  in  the  formation  of  drains, 
is  to  ascertain  the  relative  levels  of  the  various  parts  of 
the  land,  so  as  to  be  certain  that,  when  constructed, 
they  will  act  efficiently  in  permitting  the  passage  of  the 
water  along  them.  In  some  situations,  where  the  in- 
clination of  the  surface  is  considerable,  no  doubt  can 
exist  as  to  that.  But  where  the  surface  is  nearly  level 
to  the  eye,  or  where  it  varies  much  in  shape,  the 
question  can  only  be  determined  by  taking  accurate 
levels  of  the  different  parts,  and  thereby  ascertaining 
the  various  relative  heights,  with  regard  to  the  outlet 
by  which  the  drainage  water  is  to  be  carried  off. 

The  next  point  is  to  determine  the  materials  of  which 
the  drain  shall  be  constructed.  This  must  depend 
frequently  upon  the  situation  and  the  comparative 
value  of  the  several  available  materials,  and  also  upon 
the  kind  of  drain  to  be  made.  These  questions  dis- 
posed of,  the  cutting  of  the  drains  may  be  commenced ; 
and  if  underground  drains,  the  culverts  or  ducts  built 
or  formed,  and  the  drains  again  rilled  up  to  the  surface, 
which  completes  the  work. 

These  several  matters  will  now  be  considered  in  detail- 

(T6) 


CHAPTER    VI. 

LEVELLING. 

LEVELLING-  is  a  branch  of  surveying,  the  object  of 
which  is  to  find  a  line  parallel  with  the  horizon,  from 
which  the  rise  and  fall  of  ground  may  be  measured. 
Its  use  to  the  drainer  is  to  ascertain  the  difference  of  the 
heights  of  ground,  so  as  to  find  the  best  descent  for  the 
drains ;  and,  in  level  districts  of  country,  it  is  often 
requisite,  in  order  to  know,  before  commencing  drain- 
age, whether  one  or  another  place  will  present  the  best 
fall  for  carrying  off  the  water. 

For  these  purposes,  a  simple  mode  of  levelling  is 
sufficiently  accurate,  except  for  the  general  drainage 
of  extensive  districts,  when  competent  engineers  would 
be  employed ;  and  it  is  only  necessary  here,  therefore, 
to  state  the  way  in  which  what  is  requisite  can  be  effect- 
ed without  the  aid  of  expensive  instruments. 


If  a  level  be  placed  at  ft,  Fig.  17,  in  a  perfectly  hori- 
zontal position,  and  two  staves,  marked  on  one  side 

(T7) 


78  LEVELLING. 

with  feet  and  inches,  be  placed  at  a  and  c,  a  person, 
looking  along  the  level  from  6,  first  to  a,  and  noting  the 
number  of  feet  at  which  a  straight  line,  drawn  from  5, 
would  cut  the  staff  at  a,  and  then  looking  towards  c, 
and  noting  where  the  same  line  would  cut  c,  will  have 
only  to  deduct  the  one  number  of  feet  from  the  other, 
and  the  difference  will  be  the  height  of  the  ground  at 
a  above  the  ground  at  c.  If  then  the  level  be  moved 
on  between  c  and  c?,  and  the  same  operation  be  repeated, 
the  same  result  will,  of  course,  be  obtained  between 
these  two  points,  and  so  on  as  often  as  need  be.  What- 
ever may  be  the  distance,  by  adding  all  the  observations 
taken  in  each  direction  together,  those  seen  looking 
backwards  in  one  column,  and  those  seen  looking 
forwards  in  another,  and  subtracting  the  sum  of  one 
from  the  other,  the  difference  will  give  the  elevation  of 
the  one  of  the  two  extreme  points  of  observation  above 
the  other.  If  the  two  columns  add  up  precisely  alike 
in  amount,  there  is  no  difference  in  the  level  of  the 
starting  point  from  that  at  which  the  observations 
terminate.  By  this  means,  it  will  be  known  with  cer- 
tainty whether  a  fall  can  be  obtained  for  carrying  off 
drainage  water  at  any  given  place  from  ground  near  or 
distant  from  it. 

Care  must  be  taken,  in  moving  the  level  from  place 
to  place,  for  making  the  observations,  that  the  sight  is 
always  the  same  distance  from  the  surface  of  the  ground 
on  which  it  stands.  For  great  distances,  the  sights 
must  be  taken,  and  the  marks  on  the  staves  read  off  by 
the  aid  of  a  telescope,  attached  to  the  level ;  but  for 
drainage  of  land  for  agricultural  purposes,  the  observa- 
tions can  be  made  at  such  distances  only  as  the  eye  can 
reach  without  the  assistance  of  that  instrument.  That 


LEVELLING.  79 

being  the  case,  the  levels  may  be  taken  by  means  of  a 
simple  water-level,  which  has  been  long  in  use,  and  of 
which  the  following  description  is  taken  from  Mr.  J.  J. 
Thomas's  small  volume,*  which,  although  of  very  un- 
pretending character,  contains  information  which  would 
probably  save  many  a  farmer  ten  times  its  cost  every 
year  of  his  life,  by  teaching  him  \hs  principles  on  which 
he  would  use,  to  the  lest  advantage,  his  labor-saving  ma- 
chinery and  implements : 

Fig.  18. 


Pig.  19 


COMMON  LEVELLINO  IN6TKUMEHT. 


"  The  water  level  is  made  of  a  lead  tube,  about  three 
feet  long,  bent  up  an  inch  or  two  at  each  end,  and 
stiffened  by  fastening  to  a  wooden  bar,  A,  B  (Fig.  18). 
Into  each  end  is  cemented,  with  sealing-wax,  a  small 
and  thin  phial,  with  the  bottom  broken  off,  so  that  when 
the  tube  is  filled  with  water  it  may  rise  freely  into  the 
phials.  If  the  tube  be  now  filled  with  water,  colored 
with  cochineal,  or  any  dye-stuff,  and  then  placed  upon 
the  tripod,  C,  by  looking  across  the  two  surfaces  of 
liquid  in  the  phials,  an  accurate  level  may  be  obtained. 

*  "  Farm  Implements,  and  the  principles  of  their  construction  and 
use."  By  John  J.  Thomas. 


80 


LEVELLING. 


When  not  in  use,  a  cork  is  placed  into  each  phial. 
"  Sights"  of  equal  height,  fastened  to  pieces  of  cork 
floating  on  the  water,  as  shown  in  Fig.  19,  give  a  more 
distinct  line  for  the  eye.  The  sights  are  formed  of  fine 
threads,  or  hairs,  stretched  across  the  square  openings. 
To  ascertain  whether  these  threads  are  both  of  equal 
heights  above  the  water,  let  a  mark  be  made  where  they 
intersect  some  distant  object ;  then  reverse  the  instru- 
ment, or  turn  it  end  for  end,  and  observe  whether  the 
threads  cross  the  same  mark.  If  they  do,  the  instrument 
is  correct ;  but  if  they  do  not,  then  one  of  the  sights 
must  be  raised  or  lowered  until  it  becomes  so." 

For  the  purpose  of  keeping  a  uniform  grade  of  fall 
in  cutting  drains,  a  mason's  level  will  answer ;  but  no 
level  is  so  useful  for  that  purpose  as  the  A,  or  span 
level,  Fig.  20. 

Fig.  20. 


Such  a  level  may  be  easily  constructed  of  wooden 
laths.  The  span  should  be  either  sixteen  feet  six 
inches,  or  half  that  length.  The  two  feet  being  placed 
on  a  perfectly  level  floor,  the  plumb-line  will  hang  in 
the  centre,  where  a  notch  should  be  made  in  the  cross- 
bar. Then  place  a  block  of  wood  exactly  an  inch 
thick  under  one  leg,  and  mark  the  place  on  the  cross- 
bar that  the  plumb  line  then  touches.  Put  a  second 


LEVELLING.  81 

block  of  one  inch  under  the  same  leg,  and  again  mark 
the  place  of  contact  of  the  plumb-line  on  the  cross-bar, 
and  so  on,  as  far  as  requisite.  Afterwards,  put  the 
blocks,  one  by  one,  under  the  other  leg,  and  mark  the 
bar  on  the  other  side  of  the  centre.  When  thus  pre- 
pared, if  the  span  of  the  level  be  sixteen  feet  six  inches, 
the  plumb-line  will  indicate  upon  the  bar,  by  the  dis- 
tance that  it  hangs  from  the  centre  notch,  the  number 
of  inches  per  rod  of  the  ascent  or  descent  of  any  drain 
in  which  it  is  placed.  If  the  span  of  the  level  be  eight 
feet  three  inches,  it  will,  of  course,  in  the  same  way, 
indicate  the  number  of  inches  of  ascent  or  descent  in 
half  a  rod. 

By  the  aid  of  the  above  simple  instruments,  the 
drainer  will  be  able  to  take  the  necessary  levels  for  all 
ordinary  works. 

4* 


CHAPTER    VII. 

DIFFERENT   KINDS   OF   DRAINS   DESCRIBED. 

A  GREAT  variety  of  drains  are  described  in  this  chap- 
ter, some  of  which  are  by  no  means  desirable,  where 
more  perfect  ones  can  be  adopted ;  but  the  question  of 
expense  must  always  be  of  importance  in  drainage,  and 
that  must  depend  upon  the  kind  of  materials  to  be  had 
at  reasonable  cost.  This  may  render  it  needful  some- 
tunes,  whatever  may  be  the  system  of  drainage  adopted, 
to  select  a  less  perfect  description  of  drain  than,  but  for 
its  cheap  cost,  would  be  proper.  From  the  many  kinds 
of  drains  here  mentioned,  that  selection  can  be  made ; 
but  it  is  needless  to  remark,  that  the  more  durable  the 
first  construction,  the  more  lasting  and  satisfactory  will 
the  work  prove  ;  and  the  subsequent  expense  in  keep- 
ing it  in  order  will  be,  likewise,  proportionably  less. 

For  main  drains,  open  ducts,  either  stone,  slate,  or 
tile,  should  always  be  provided,  if  possible.  Stone 
drains  may  be  made  with  two  flat  stones,  placed  against 
each  other  at  the  bottom  of  the  drain,  with  another 
covering,  both,  as  at  a,  Fig.  21,  forming  an  equilateral 
duct  of  six  inches  in  the  side.  It  should  be  held  down 
in  its  position  by  small  stones,  Z>,  to  a  height  of  eighteen 
inches  ;  then  covered  with  turf  or  other  dry  substance, 
c,  and  the  earth  d  returned  above  them.  In  making 
this  form  of  duct,  of  three  feet  in  depth,  the  drain  will 


DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  DRAINS  DESCRIBED. 


83 


require  to  be  eighteen  inches  wide  at  top,  to  allow  the 
drainer  room  to  work  while  standing  on  the  narrow 
triangular  space  at  the  bottom.  Placing  the  apex  of 
the  triangle  undermost  gives  the  water  power  to  sweep 
away  any  sediment  along  the  narrow  bottom ;  but  it 
possesses  the  disadvantage  of  permitting  the  water  to 
descend  by  its  own  gravity,  between  the  joining  of  the 
stones,  to  the  subsoil,  which  runs  the  risk  of  being 
softened  into  a  pulp,  or  of  its  sandy  portion  being  car- 
ried away;  and  it  is  possible  for  a  stone  to  get  jammed 
in  the  narrow  gutter  and  form  a  damming. 

Another  form  of  duct,  which  is  sometimes  called  a 
till-dram,  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  22,  where  a  is  the  duct, 


Fig.  21. 


Fig.  22. 


THE  TRIANGULAR  STONE  DUCT. 


THE  COUPLED  STONE  DTTCT. 


consisting  of  a  sole  lying  on  the  ground,  supporting 
two  stones  meeting  at  the  top,  forming  an  equilateral 
triangle  of  six  inches  a  side.  This  form  encourages  a 
deposition  of  sediment  to  a  greater  degree  than  the 
former,  but  it  prevents  to  any  dangerous  extent,  the 


8-i        DIFFERENT   KINDS  OF   DRAINS  DESCRIBED. 


descent  of  the  water  under  the  sole.  Having  a 
flat  bottom,  the  drain  can  easily  be  cast  out  with  a 
width  at  top  of  only  fifteen  inches  to  a  depth  of  three 
feet. 

A  more  perfect  duct  than  either  of  these  is  made  by 
a  tile  and  sole.  In  all  main  drains,  formed  of  what- 
ever materials,  capable  of  conveying  a  considerable 
body  of  water,  a  sole  is  absolutely  requisite  to  protect 
the  ground  from  being  washed  away  by  the  water, 
and  a  more  effectual  protection  cannot  be  given  to  it 
than  by  tile  and  sole.  A  main-tile,  of  four  inches  wide 
and  five  inches  high,  will  contain  a  large  body  of 
water  ;  but  should  one  such  tile  be  considered  insuffi- 
cient, two  may  be  placed  side  by  side,  as  represented 
by  a  and  b  in  Fig.  23.  Should'  a  still  larger  space  be 


Fig.  28. 


Fig.  24. 


THE   DOUBLE   TILED   MAIN   DBAI>*. 


THE  INVESTED  DOUBLE  TILKD  MAIN  DBAJN. 


required,  one  or  two  soles  may  be  placed  above  these 
tiles,  and  other  tiles  set  on  them,  as  a  and  b  are.  Or 
should  a  still  deeper  and  heavier  body  of  water  be 


DIFFERENT   KINDS   OF   DRAINS   DESCRIBED.         85 

required  to  pass  through  a  main  drain,  one  or  two  tiles 
can  be  inverted  on  the  ground  on  their  circular  top,  as 
a,  Fig.  24,  bearing  each  a  sole,  c,  upon  its  open  side, 
and  this  again  surmounted  by  another  tile,  6,  in  its 
proper  position.  In  such  an  arrangement,  there  is 
some  difficulty  in  making  the  undermost  tile,  a,  steady 
on  its  top ;  for  which  purpose  the  earth  is  taken  out 
of  a  rounded  form,  and  the  tile  carefully  laid  and 
wedged  round  with  stones  or  earth ;  but  there  is 
greater  difficulty  in  making  the  uppermost  tile,  Z>,  stand 
in  that  position  without  a  sole,  as  is  recommended  by 
some  writers  on  draining,  because  the  least  displace- 
ment of  either  tile  will  cause  the  upper  one  to  slip  off 
the  edge  of  the  under,  and  fall  into  it.  In  the  narrow- 
est of  these  cases  of  main  drains  with  tiles,  the  drains 
can  be  easily  cut  at  fifteen  inches  wide  at  top  to  the 
depth  of  three  feet.  Small  stones  should  be  put  above 
the  tiles,  if  at  all  procurable,  to  the  height  of  eighteen 
inches  above  the  bottom;  if  not  procurable,  gravel 
will  answer  the  same  purpose  ;  and,  if  both  are  beyond 
reach,  they  should  be  enveloped  with  thin,  tough 
turf* 

The  following  are  various  kinds  of  drains  adapted 
for  small  drains  and  for  the  sub-main;  and  others  for 
general  drainage  of  the  land. 

The  Figure  58  f  represents  a  small  drain  filled  with 
small  stones.  This  drain  is  thirty-six  inches  deep,  nine 
inches  wide  at  bottom,  twelve  inches  at  the  top  of  the 
stones,  and  the  stones  eighteen  inches  deep. 

The  small  Tile-Drain  is  represented  in  Fig.  53.J    The 
drain-tile  should  rest  on  a  sole  placed  at  bottom  of  the 
drain,  unless  the  tile  be  made  with  the  sole  attached. 
*  Stephens.  f  See  page  152.  J  See  page  140. 


86        DIFFERENT   KINDS  OF  DRAINS  DESCRIBED. 


Fig.  25. 


THE  TILE  AND  STONE  CHAIN'. 


The  Figure  25  represents  a  tile  and  stone  drain,  which 
is  declared  by  every  writer  on  and  practitioner  of  drain- 
ing to  be  the  ne  plus  ultra  of  the  art,  though  very  few 
have  adopted  it,  because,  in  cases  where  stones  have 
to  be  quarried  and  broken,  it  is  an  expensive  mode. 
A  tile,  «,  rests  on  a  sole ;  small 
stones  are  packed  around  the  tile 
by  the  hand  until  they  cover  it, 
as  at  b;  the  remaining  small 
stones,  c,  are  put  in  by  the  drain- 
screen ;  a  covering  is  either  put 
above  them,  or  small  stones  beaten 
down  with  the  beater,  and  the 
earth  returned  upon  them.  The 
width  of  the  bottom  is  seven 
inches,  width  of  the  top  twelve 
inches,  depth  two  and  a  half  feet, 
composed  of  eighteen  inches  of  earth,  and  twelve  inches 
to  the  top  of  the  covering  of  the  stones. 

A  drain  represented  in  Fig.  42  *  is  applicable  to  clay 
land.  The  figure  represents  the  drain  as  cut  in  the 
stiff  soil  with  a  flat  stone,  c?,  covering  the  duct,  but  be- 
fore it  is  filled  in  with  earth. 

Mr.  John  S.  Skinner,  in  some  sensible  remarks  on 
draining,  in  his  edition  of  the  "Book  of  the  Farm," 
has  called  attention  to  a  mode  of  draining  with  loood 
which  may  be  well  deserving  attention  in  places  where 
stones  cannot  be  procured.  This  plan  (although  not 
new)  has  been,  Mr.  Skinner  says,  well  carried  out  by 
a  Mr.  Summers,  near  Nottingham,  Maryland,  who  has 
reclaimed  spots  of  land  which  had  before  been  worth- 
less, and  which  now  yield  heavy  crops.  He  says :  "  The 
wood  used  for  this  purpose  consists  of  the  thinnings  of 
*  See  page  119. 


DIFFERENT   KINDS   OF   DRAINS   DESCRIBED.         87 

plantations,  i.e.,  the  small  trees  commonly  converted 
into  paling.  Larch  is  preferable,  on  account  of  its 
greater  durability ;  but  Scotch  fir,  being  the  cheapest 
and  most  abundant  kind  in  this  quarter,  is  generally 
used.  The  drains  to  be  filled  with  wood  are  usually 
thirty-two  inches  in  depth,  eighteen  inches  wide  at  the 
top,  and  about  six  inches  at  the  bottom.  It  is  essential 
to  the  efficiency  and  durability  of  wooden  drains,  that 
the  sides  be  formed  with  a  proper  and  regular  slope 
from  top  to  bottom.  The  small  trees — or  "spars,"  as 
they  are  designated — are  prepared  for  being  put  into 
the  drain  in  the  following  manner :  A  portion  of  the 
butt  or  thick  end  of  each  is  sawn  off  for  placing  trans- 
versely in  the  drain,  about  six  inches  above  the  bot- 
tom ;  the  breadth  of  the  drain  at  this  part  may  be 
assumed  at  nine  inches,  in  which  case  the  length  of  the 
cross-bars  will  require  to  be  about  fifteen  inches,  so  as 
to  have  three  inches  resting  on  each  side.  They  are 
generally  about  four  inches  in  diameter,  and  are  placed 
in  the  drains  at  intervals  of  four  feet  apart ;  they  are 
forced  firmly  into  their  proper  position  by  a  few  blows 
of  a  heavy  mallet,  the  workman  taking  care  that  they 
are  all  in  the  same  plane  or  level.  Any  earth  loosened 
from  the  sides  in  striking  down  the  bars  is,  of  course, 
thrown  out  as  the  work  is  proceeded  with.  After  the 
butt-ends  of  the  trees  (which  are  divested  of  their 
branches  in  the  wood)  are  severed,  and  placed  trans- 
versely in  the  drains  in  the  manner  just  described,  the 
remainder  of  them  are  laid  longitudinally  above  the 
bars,  three  being  commonly  placed  side  by  side,  and 
covered  with  the  branches  and  twigs,  or  with  turf,  heath, 
&c.,  previous  to  putting  in  the  earth  cast  out  in  opening 
the  drains.  It  is  obvious  that  this  method  of  draining 


88        DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  DRAINS  DESCRIBED. 

can  be  adopted  with,  advantage  only  in  situations  where 
timber  is  convenient  and  cheap,  and  when  the  subsoil 
is  sufficiently  cohesive  to  afford  a  proper  support  to  the 
transverse  bars  of  wood ;  hence  it  is  inadmissible  in  the 
case  of  boggy  lands.  The  putting  in  of  the  wood  is 
accomplished  in  a  very  expeditious  manner :  two  per- 
sons saw  off  the  butts,  and  another  places  them  in  their 
proper  position  in  the  drain,  after  which  the  longitudinal 
spars  are  laid  on  as  closely  as  possible,  with  the  top  and 
butt-ends  alternately  in  the  same  direction,  so  as  to  make 
them  fit  the  better.  There  is  thus  formed  beneath  the 
wood  a  channel  for  the  passage  of  water,  of  about  six 
inches  in  width  and  the  same  in  depth.  The  cost  of 
this  mode  of  draining  obviously  depends  much  on  the 
price  of  the  wood  employed.  In  most  parts  of  this 
country  the  spars  used  for  the  purpose  are  obtain- 
able at  from  Is.  to  Is.  6d.  per  dozen ;  and  it  requires 
four  dozen,  averaging  twenty  feet  in  length,  to  do  a 
hundred  yards  of  drain.  Drains  thus  constructed  have 
been  known  to  last  for  a  very  long  period ;  on  one  farm 
the  writer  has  been  assured  that  drains  formed  of  wood 
in  the  manner  just  described  have  been  in  perfect  oper- 
ation for  more  than  thirty  years." 

Brush  Wood  or  Bush  Drains,  as  they  are  called,  are 
formed  by  laying  down  branches,  spray,  and  brush  wood 
in  the  bottom  of  the  cuttings,  to  form  the  duct  instead 
of  tile  or  stone.  Sometimes  the  brush  is  first  laid  down 
along  the  edge  of  the  drain  and  formed  into  an  endless 
cable  a  foot  thick  by  binding  it  tightly  together  with  wil- 
low, and  afterwards  it  is  rolled  into  the  bottom  of  the  cut- 
ting and  trod  down.  This  forms  a  more  lasting  drain 
than  any  other  of  this  description.  Usually  the  branches 
and  brush  are  put  into  the  cutting  in  a  slanting  direc- 


DIFFERENT   KINDS  OF   DRAINS   DESCRIBED.        89 

tion  with  their  root  ends  towards  the  bottom  of  the 
drain,  and  those  ends  also  placed  with  the  descent  of 
the  ground.  They  should  be  trodden  down  and  com- 
pressed to  half  their  bulk,  and  all  brush  drains  should 
be  covered  with  turf  inverted  on  them  before  filling 
in.  The  filling  should  be  executed  on  the  same  prin- 
ciples as  for  other  drains.  * 

A  Slab  Drain  has  been  sometimes  constructed, 
amongst  the  many  modes  in  which  wood  has  been  used 
for  drains ;  and  an  instance  of  this  kind  of  drain  is 
described  in  that  excellent  Farmer's  newspaper  the 
"  Country  Gentkman"  which  has  been  found  to  work 
well  for  several  years.  This  drain  is  there  described 
by  M r.  J.  Wilbur,  of  Beamis  Heights,  1ST.  Y.,  as  follows : 
"  Our  land  was  a  retentive  subsoil,  and  on  such  soil 
only  would  I  recommend  this  kind  of  drain.  We  dug 
oar  drain  of  sufficient  width  at  bottom  to  admit  a  com- 
mon round  shovel,  and  from  twenty  to  thirty  inches 
deep  with  moderately  sloping  sides.  Then  commencing 
at  the  upper  end,  we  laid  a  common  hemlock,  bass  wood, 
or  other  slab  from  ten  to  twenty  inches  in  width,  with 
the  sawed  side  downward,  and  the  upper  edge  reclining 
against  the  side  of  the  ditch,  so  as  to  form  a  triangular 
throat  between  the  side  and  bottom  of  the  drain.  We 
covered  the  irregular  portions  of  the  slabs  with  other 
pieces,  and  chinked  with  turf.  We  placed  the  slabs 
end  to  end,  the  same  as  tile  are  laid,  and  were  careful 
to  keep  the  throat  clear  as  we  advanced.  We  formed 
openings  from  the  surface,  wherever  desirable,  with 
open  drains  or  dead  furrows  leading  to  them,  all  of 
Avhich  continued  to  work  well  at  the  time  I  visited  the 
farm  in  1852."  (They  were  made  twelve  years  pre- 
viously).* 

*  Country  Gentleman,  vol.  iii.,  page  311. 


90  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  DRAINS  DESCRIBED. 

A  Wooden  Drain  as  a  substitute  for  Tile  has  been  pro- 
posed by  a  Scotch  gentleman,  which  is  represented  in 
Fig.  26.  He  suggests  larch  as  a  wood  which  in  wet 


Fig.  26. 


THE   LARCH  DRAIX-TUBE. 


boggy  soils  is  durable  for  such  purpose.  He  advises 
these  drains  to  be  four  inches  outside,  with  a  clear 
water-way  of  two  inches  ;  the  tubes  must  be  made  with 
wooden  pins  instead  of  nails,  and  with  holes  in  their 
sides  to  admit  water.  But  the  cost  of  construction 
would  in  many  places  make  these  drains  more  expen- 
sive than  tiles,  though  brought  from  some  distance. 

Fig.  37  *  represents  a  Peat-  Tile  Drain.  The  peat  is 
cut  from  the  ground  to  be  drained  in  a  tile  shape,  with 
a  tool  made  for  the  purpose,  (which  will  be  found 
figured  in  the  chapter  on  Cutting  Drains,)  and  when 
dried  in  the  sun,  is  used  as  other  tiles.  As  clay  is 
generally  absent  in  the  vicinity  of  such  soils,  ordinary 
tiles  would  be  expensive.  With  the  above  tool  a  man 
may  cut  from  2,000  to  3,000  peat  tiles  in  a  day.  This 
plan  is  applicable  only  to  mossy  light  soils. 

Sod  Draining  is  a  very  imperfect  mode  of  draining 
land  (the  mode  of  doing  the  work  is  described  in  a 
subsequent  chapter),  and  cannot  well  be  recommended 
for  adoption  upon  principle,  as  it  may  often  fail.  But 
notwithstanding  this,  it  has  been  practiced  in  England 
for  clay  soils  with  considerable  success.  In  the  Journal 
of  the  Eoyal  Agricultural  Society  for  1842,  it  is 
stated  by  Lord  Spencer,  who  devoted  much  attention 
to  agricultural  pursuits,  that  he  had  drained  clay  land 
*  See  page  111. 


DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  DRAINS  DESCRIBED. 


91 


in  that  way  in  1814,  and  that  very  little  of  it  had  since 
required  to  be  renewed. 

Another  method  of  draining  is  performed  on  strong 
clay  land  by  the  Mole- Plough.  Its  object  is  to  make  a 
small  opening  in  the  soil  at  a  given  distance  from  the 

Fig.  27. 


IEEP    DRAIN   ON    GRASS. 


surface,  in  the  form  of  a  mole-run,  to  act  as  a  duct  for 
the  water  that  may  find  its  way  into  it.  It  makes  the 
pipe  or  opening  in  the  soil  by  means  of  an  iron -pointed 


Fie.  28. 


A  COVEEED  SHEEP  DRAIN   IN   OEAS8. 


cone,  drawn  through  the  soil  by  the  application  of  a 
force  considerably  greater  than  that  applied  to  a  common 
plough. 

The  mole-plough,  Fig.  40,  as  a  draining  machine  can 


92          DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  DRAINS  DESCRIBED. 

never  be  of  much  utility  except  in  stiff  clay  land.  In 
all  those  subsoils  where  boulders  occur,  whether  large  or 
small,  the  mole-plough  is  inapplicable,  its  usefulness  is 
limited  to  such  subsoils  as  consist  of  pure  alluvial  clays. 

Surface  Drains  have  little  variety,  being  principally 
open  ditches ;  but  it  adds  much  to  their  permanence 
and  efficiency,  particularly  where  they  are  made  in 
grass  land,  if  their  bottom  and  sides  are  protected  by 
stone  laid  dry,  and  where  stone  is  plentiful,  the  expense 
is  not  great ;  and  if  stone  is  scarce,  slate  or  a  slab  of 
wood  with  the  saw  cut  upwards,  may  be  substituted 
for  the  bottom  with  stone  sides. 

The  Figures  27  and  28  represent  two  kinds  of  drains 
applicable  only  to  grass  lands.  They  are  generally 
called  Sheep  Drains.  The  one  is  open;  the  other 
closed  at  top,  but  it  has  the  disadvantage  of  being 
liable  to  be  injured  by  the  passage  of  cattle  over  it, 
which  would,  by  their  weight,  if  grazing,  tread  in  the 
top  soil,  and  so  obstruct  the  drain. 


CHAP  TEH    VIII. 

THE  MATERIALS  ADAPTED  TO  THE   CONSTRUCTION   OF 
DRAINS. 

WE  now  come  to  one  of  the  most  important  con- 
siderations in  drainage,  the  materials  with  which  to  make 
the  drains.  They  are  numerous,  and  much  will  depend 
in  the  selection  to  be  made  from  them,  on  the  question 
of  comparative  cost. 

The  things  to  be  chiefly  looked  at  are,  efficiency  of 
operation,  durability  and  cost. 

To  secure  complete  efficiency  of  the  drainage  when  the 
work  is  done,  should  be  the  first  point,  and  the  mode 
of  doing  it  will  be  decided  upon  by  reference  to  the  de- 
scription of  soil,  the  situation,  and  other  particulars,  the 
effects  of  which  have  been  discussed  in  the  preceding 
pages.  Permanency  and  durability  are  the  next  things, 
and  here  the  same  considerations  will  to  some  extent 
operate.  In  land  of  great  inequality  of  surface,  and 
which  presents  in  places  considerable  declivities,  the 
wear  and  tear  of  drains  will  be  much  greater  than  in 
those  in  which  there  is  but  slight  inclination  in  the 
direction  of  the  drains.  Consequently,  to  secure  equally 
durable  work,  they  must  be  necessarily  constructed  of 
stronger  materials  in  the  one  case  than  is  required  in 
the  other.  In  all  covered  drains,  the  main  drams 
should  be  very  securely  made  with  the  best  material 

(93) 


94  CONSTRUCTION  OF  DRAINS. 

that  the  locality  affords,  or  that  can  be  obtained  at  a 
cost  that  is  not  manifestly  disproportioned  to  the 
object ;  because  the  whole  drainage  is  impeded,  or  per- 
haps  stopped  altogether,  if  the  main  drains  become  de- 
fective. Whenever,  therefore,  the  cost  is  so  important 
a  question  as  to  induce  the  adoption  of  a  less  efficient 
system  of  drainage  than  is  desirable  in  a  locality,  the 
saving  should  be  effected  in  the  small  drains  rather 
than  the  main,  for  although  a  few  of  the  small  became 
inefficient,  the  injury  would  be  comparatively  trifling 
compared  with  failure  in  the  main  drains. 

In  reference  to  the  question  of  the  first  cost  of 
drainage,  there  is  no  doubt  any  drainage,  the  most 
temporary  or  inefficient  (comparatively),  is  better  than 
none.  But  it  is  more  prudent  to  drain  five  acres  at  a 
time,  and  do  the  work  well,  and  so  that  it  will  perma- 
nently stand,  as  to  material  and  workmanship,  than  to 
drain  four  times  that  number  of  acres  in  a  temporary 
bungling  way.  And  this  will  be  cheapest  in  the  end. 
For  the  benefit  from  increase  of  crops  is,  in  most  in- 
stances such,  as  to  give  greater  returns  from  small  pieces 
of  land  well  drained,  than  from  large  ones  undrained. 
Besides  which,  drainage  well  executed  with  the  best 
materials,  will  remain  efficient  in  most  situations  for  a 
man's  lifetime,  and  even  much  longer.  There  are  well- 
authenticated  instances  of  drains  acting  perfectly  well 
that  had  been  made  one  hundred  years. 

Of  the  durability  of  common  brick  when  used  in 
drains,  there  is  a  remarkable  instance  mentioned  by 
Mr.  George  Guthrie,  factor  to  the  Earl  of  Stair,  on 
Culhorn,  Wigtonshire.  In  the  execution  of  modern 
draining  on  that  estate,  some  brick  drains,  on  being  in- 
tersected, emitted  water  very  freely.  According  to 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  DRAINS.  95 

documents  which  refer  to  these  drains,  it  appears 
that  they  had  been  formed  upwards  of  a  hundred 
years  ago.  They  were  found  between  the  vegeta- 
ble mould  and  the  clay  upon  which  it  rested,  about 
thirty-one  inches  below  the  surface.  They  presented 
two  forms — one  consisting  of  two  bricks  set  asunder 
on  edge,  and  the  other  two  laid  lengthways  across  them, 
leaving  between  them  an  opening  of  four  inches  square 
for  water,  but  having  no  soles.  The  bricks  had  not 
sunk  in  the  least  through  the  sandy  clay  bottom  upon 
which  they  rested,  as  they  were  three  inches  broad. 
The  other  form  was  of  two  bricks  laid  side  by  side, 
as  a  sole,  with  two  others  built  on  end  on  each  other 
at  both  sides,  upon  the  solid  ground,  and  covered  with 
flat  stones,  the  building  being  packed  on  each  side  of 
the  drain  with  broken  bricks. 

From  the  descriptions  of  different  modes  of  making 
drains  given  in  a  preceding  chapter,  it  will  have  been 
seen  that  the  materials  required  are  used  for  the  pur- 
pose either  of  filling  or  for  building  ducts  in  open  or 
closed  drains ;  and  for  closing  up  in  the  latter  the  cuts 
in  the  surface  which  were  made  to  enable  those  ducts 
to  be  formed. 

To  estimate  the  relative  value  of  different  materials, 
durability  is  the  most  important  point.  Because,  sup- 
posing drains  to  be  properly  made,  the  thing  wished 
is,  that  they  should  remain  in  the  same  state  unchanged. 
Stones  and  unglazed  tiles  are,  therefore,  the  best  of  all 
materials.  For  tiles,  if  well-burnt,  are  practically  as 
durable  as  stones,  in  the  situation  in  which  they  are 
placed  for  drains.  And  a  combination  of  those  two 
materials,  as  shown  in  the  Fig.  25,  is  possibly  the  very 
best  of  all  drains  for  durability  and  efficiency.  Unglazed 


96  CONSTRUCTION  OF  DRAINS. 

tiles  or  pipes  alone  are  now  considered,  by  drain- 
ers of  experience,  to  effect  perfect  drainage,  and  are 
usually  preferred — even  to  stones.  But  if  stone  drains 
are  built  in  the  manner  shown  in  Figs.  21  and  22, 
the  work  being  well  done,  and  the  stones  of  the  proper 
size,  (which  will  be  presently  adverted  to,)  and  well 
rammed  down,  except  in  light  soils,  they  would  be 
equally,  if  not  more  permanent,  with  tiles.  In  light 
soils,  or  if  made  too  near  the  surface,  stone  drains  are 
more  liable  than  tiles  to  be  displaced  by  the  action  of 
water,  or  by  deep  ploughing ;  although  ploughing  can 
only  affect  them,  if,  in  making  the  drains,  they  are 
placed  too  near  to  the  surface. 

Tiles  for  draining  are  made  of  various  shapes  and 
sizes.  One  of  the  best  description  is  the  pipe,  cylin- 
drical-shaped tile,  oval  in  its  bore ;  and,  when  used,  it 
is  placed  with  a  narrow  side  downwards.  The  shape 
secures  the  better  clearance  of  the  interior  from  sedi- 
mentary accumulation.  Collars,  or  short  outer  tiles  to 
go  over  the  joints,  should  be  used  with  pipes.  An- 
other good  drain  is  horse-shoe  shaped,  and  should  be 
placed  upon  a  sole  tile,  of  greater  width  by  three  or 
four  inches  than  its  base.  This  shaped  tile  is  now 
made  with  a  sole  attached,  which,  for  stiff  soils,  is  an 
improvement ;  but  in  light  soils  it  would  be  more  lia- 
ble to  become  displaced,  than  if  resting  on  a  separate 
sole.  The  following  table  shows  the  numbers  of  tiles 
required  for  an  acre,  of  the  different  lengths  made,  and 
placed  at  the  stated  distances  : 

12iii.      18  In.      14  in.      15  in. 

Drains  at  12  feet  apart  require  3630    3351    3111     2904  per  acre. 
15          "          «          2904     2681     2489     2323       " 
18          «          "         2420    2234    2074    1936       " 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  DRAINS.  97 

Drains  at  21  feet  apart  require  2074  1914  1777    1659  per  acre. 

24          "          «          1815  1675  1556     1452       « 

27          "          "          1613  1480  1383     1291 

"        30          "          "          1452  1340  1245     1162       " 

33          "          "          1320  1218  1131     1056 

36          "         "         1210  1117  1037  ^   968       " 

The  numbers  of  each  length  of  tile  required  at  inter- 
mediate distances  can  easily  be  calculated  from  these 
data. 

It  is  of  great  consequence  that  drains  should,  when 
made,  remain  free  from  extraneous  substances  which 
would  ultimately  cause  stoppages  in  them  ;  and  as  the 
water  in  passing  to  them  holds  matter  dissolved  and  in 
suspension  in  it,  the  more  perfectly  it  is  filtered  before 
it  enters  the  drain  the  better.  This  filtration  depends 
in  part  on  the  material,  and  in  part  on  the  mode  of 
making  the  duct  of  the  drain.  And  in  this  respect  it 
is  that  unglazed  tile  drains  have  an  advantage  over  all 
other  materials.  For  as  they  are  porous,  and  should 
be  so  well  formed  as  to  fit  close  together,  the  water 
enters  them  chiefly  through  the  pores  of  the  tile,  and 
in  its  passage  is  freed  from,  all  substances  not  chemi- 
cally combined  with  it,  except  as  to  so  much  as  enters 
through  the  small  crevices  of  the  joints  between  the 
tiles. 

Bricks  have  been  used  for  draining,  and  they  are 
nearly  if  not  quite  of  equal  value  with  stones,  for  the 
building  of  the  open  duct ;  but  as  to  filtering,  they  are 
less  effective  than  tiles,  because  they  present  greater 
extent  of  joining  surface.  They  are  not  likely  to  be 
much  used,  as  tiles  are  more  eligible,  except  for  mains 
in  some  peculiar  situations,  where  stones  would  be  a 
cheaper  substitute,  in  general,  for  tiles. 


98  CONSTRUCTION  OF  DRAINS. 

Slates  may  be  used  for  the  soles  of  ducts  with  advan- 
tage, and  for  the  same  purpose  as  flat  stones  in  the 
building  of  ducts ;  but  their  edges  being  usually  less 
even  than  tiles,  admit  dirt  more  readily  at  the  joints. 

When,  from  any  cause,  more  durable  materials  can- 
not be  procured,  any  substance  that  will  keep  the  drain 
open  for  the  passage  of  water  may  be  used ;  and  will 
of  course  last  proportionally  to  its  perishable  or  dura- 
ble nature.  The  following  have  been  used :  Gravel, 
sconce,  or  clinkers  from  furnaces,  sand,  leather  cuttings, 
old  tanner's  bark,  brush  wood,  spray,  wood  faggots,  thorn 
bushes,  wood  shavings,  peaty  earth,  turf,  and  straw  ;  and 
light  earth  for  drains  in  clay. 

Although  it  is  best  to  avoid  the  use  of  wood  and  other 
perishable  material,  yet  that  it  may  not  discourage  those 
Avho  cannot  obtain  a  better  article  from  any  cause,  it 
should  be  stated  that  it  has  been  found  that  drains  so 
made  have,  in  many  instances,  continued  effective  for 
years  after  the  filling  substance  had  rotted  away,  owing 
to  the  earth  having  solidified  sufficiently  around  the 
filling  before  it  decayed,  to  remain  open  afterwards. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

THE  MODE  OF  CUTTING  DRAINS. 

THE  situation  of  drains  upon  the  land,  will  be  decided 
upon  from  the  kind  of  drainage  adopted  and  the  nature 
of  the  surface.  Before  determining  on  the  direction  in 
which  the  lines  of  drains  should  run  in  the  field  pro- 
posed to  be  drained,  it  has  been  recommended  to  sink 
pits  here  and  there,  of  such  dimensions  as  to  allow  a 
man  to  work  in  them  easily,  and  to  a  depth  which  will 
secure  the  exposure  of  the  subjacent  strata  and  the 
greatest  flow  of  water,  the  depth  varying,  perhaps,  from 
five  to  seven  feet.  But,  driving  of  lines  of  drains 
from  the  bottom  to  the  top  of  the  field,  is  the  most  satis- 
factory method  of  obtaining  an  enlarged  view  of  the 
disposition  of  the  subjacent  strata,  and,  of  course,  of  the 
depth  to  which  the  drains  should  be  sunk.  Such  lines 
of  drains  will  not  be  useless,  they  will  form  the  outlets 
of  the  system  of  drains  connected  with  each  of  them, 
and  for  that  purpose  they  should  be  made  in  the  lowest 
parts  of  the  field. 

The  main  drains  for  receiving  the  water  from  the 
smaller  ones,  should  first  be  cut.  They  will  be  placed 
in  the  lowest  parts  of  the  ground.  In  all  cases  of 
covered  drains,  these  mains  should  have  open  ducts  for 
the  water  of  some  of  the  kinds  described. 

Whatever  be  the  system  of  drainage,  of  course  the 

(99) 


100  MODE  OF  CUTTING  DRAINS. 

depth  of  cutting  for  tlie  general  drainage,  must  be 
regulated  within  the  limits  of  the  fall  that  can  be  ob- 
tained for  carrying  the  water  off  the  ground  at  the 
outlet. 

Whenever  the  requisite  dimensions  of  the  cuttings  for 
different  kinds  of  drains  are  not  mentioned  in  this 
chapter,  they  have  been  given  in  a  preceding  one,  in 
which  they  are  figured  and  explained. 

The  situation  of  the  main  drains  being  fixed  upon, 
the  lines  of  the  drains  which  run  across  from  the  mains 
should  be  marked  off.  This  can  be  done  by  drawing  a 
furrow-slice  along  each  line ;  but  a  plan  which  will  not 
require  horses,  is  to  set  them  off  by  means  of  short 
stakes  driven  into  the  ground,  or,  if  the  field  is  in  grass, 
by  small  holes  made  in  the  ground  with  three  or  four 
notches  of  the  spade,  and  the  turf  turned  over  on  its 
grassy  face  beside  each  hole. 

Suppose  that  it  has  been  determined  to  make  the 
drains  six  feet  deep.  For  this  depth,  a  width  at  top  of 
thirty  inches,  and  one  at  bottom  of  eighteen  inches,  will 
be  quite  sufficient  for  the  purpose  of  drainage,  and  for 
room  for  men  to  work  in  easily ;  and  for  a  less  depth,  a 
less  width  will  suffice.  This  particular,  in  regard  to 
the  dimensions  of  the  contents  of  a  drain,  should 
always  be  kept  in  view  when  cutting  one ;  as  even  a 
small  unnecessary  addition,  either  to  the  depth  'or  width 
.of  a  deep  drain,  makes  a  considerable  difference  in  the 
quantity  of  earth  to  be  thrown  out,  and,  of  course,  in 
the  quantity  of  stones  required  for  again  filling  up  the 
excavated  space.  And  provided  the  parts  of  a  drain 
are  substantially  executed,  its  width,  beyond  that  which 
will  secure  porosity,  cannot  render  it  more  efficacious. 
The  rule  for  the  width  of  a  drain  is  well  determined 


MODE  OF  CUTTING  DRAINS. 


101 


by  the  ease  with  which  men  are  able  to  work  at  the 
bottom. 

The  cutting  of  the  drains  is  commenced  by  that  of  the 
main  drain,  which  terminates  at  the  outlet;  and  the 
operation  is  commenced  at  the  outlet,  or  lowest  part  of 
the  field. 

The  first  operation  in  breaking  ground  is  to  stretch 
the  line  for  setting  off  the  width  of  the  top  of  the  main 
drain,  and  each  division  thus  lined  off  consists  of  about 
twenty-four  yards.  Three  men  are  the  most  efficient 
number  for  carrying  on  the  most  expeditious  cutting 
of  drains.  While  the  principal  workman  is  rutting 


Fig.  29. 


Fig.  30. 


A  TEAMP-PICK. 


off  the  second  side  of  the  top  of  the  drain  with 
the  common  spade,  the  other  two  begin  to  dig 
and  shovel  out  the  mould-earth,  face  to  face,  throw- 
ing it  upon  the  lower  side.  The  first  spit  of  the 


102 


MODE  OF  CUTTING  DRAINS. 


spade  most  likely  removing  all  the  mould,  the  first 
man  commences  the  picking  of  the  subsoil  with 
the  foot-pick,  Fig.  29  ;  or,  if  the  mould  is  too  deep  to 
be  removed  by  one  spit,  and  requires  no  picking,  the 
first  man  digs  and  shovels  out  the  remainder  of  it  by 

Fig.  81. 


THE  POSITION  OF  PLANKS  AND  WEDGES  TO  PREVENT  THE  BIDM  OF  DRAINS 
FALLING  IX. 

himself  with  the  spade.  The  mould  is  thus  all  removed 
from  the  lined-off  break  or  division  of  the  drain.  When 
the  picking  commences,  one  man  uses  the  foot-pick, 
working  backward ;  another  follows  him  with  his  back 
with  a  spade,  and  digs  out  the  picked  earth ;  while  the 


MODE  OF  CUTTING  DRAINS.  103 

third  comes  forward  with  the  shovel,  Fig.  30,  with  his 
face  to  the  last  man,  and  takes  up  all  the  loose  earth, 
and  trims  the  sides  of  the  drain.  In  this  way  the  first 
spit  of  the  subsoil  is  removed.  Should  the  drain  prove 
very  wet,  and  danger  be  apprehended  of  the  sides  fall- 
ing in,  the  whole  division  should  be  taken  out  to  the 
bottom  without  stopping,  in  order  to  have  the  stones 
laid  in  it  as  quickly  as  possible.  Should  the  earth  have 
a  tendency  to  fall  in  before  the  bottom  is  reached,  short, 
thick  planks  should  be  provided,  and  placed  against 
the  loose  parts  of  both  sides  of  the  drain,  in  a  perpen- 
dicular or  horizontal  position,  according  to  the  form 
of  the  loose  earth,  and  there  kept  firm  by  short  stakes 
acting  as  wedges  between  the  planks  on  both  sides  of 
the  drain,  as  represented  in  Fig.  31,  where  a  a  are  the 
sides  of  the  drain,  d  planks  placed  perpendicularly 
against  them,  and  kept  in  their  places  by  the  short 
stake  or  wedge  c,  and  where/  are  planks  placed  hori- 
zontally and  kept  secure  by  the  wedges  e  e. 

But  if  the  earth  in  the  drain  be  moderately  dry  and 
firm,  another  division  of  four  roods  may  be  lined  off 
at  top,  and  the  subsoil  removed  as  low  as  the  depth  of 
the  former  division.  Before  proceeding,  however,  to 
line  off  a  third  division,  the  first  division  should  be 
cleared  out  for  the  builder  of  the  conduit.  The 
object  of  this  plan  is  to  give  room  to  separate  the  dig- 
gers of  the  earth  from  the  builders  of  the  stones,  so  as 
there  may  be  no  interference  with  one  another's  work, 
and  also  to  give  the  advantage  of  the  half-thrown-out 
earth  of  the  second  division  as  a  stage  upon  which  to 
receive  the  larger  stones,  such  as  the  covers  of  the 
conduit,  and  their  being  easily  handed  to  the  builder,  as 
he  proceeds  in  the  laying  of  the  conduit  in  the  first 


104 


MODE  OF  CUTTING  DRAINS. 


division.  On  throwing  out  the  earth  to  the  bottom  of 
the  first  break,  special  care  should  be  taken  to  clear 
out  the  bottom  square  to  the  sides,  to  make  its  sur- 
face even,  and  to  preserve  the  fall  previously  deter- 
mined on. 

When  a  division  of  the  drain  has  thus  been  com- 

rig.  88. 


Fig.  82. 


THE  DEAIN-GACGE. 

% 
THE  DEEP  CONDTTITED  DRAIN,  WITH  WEIL  AND   AUOEE  BORE. 

pletely  cleared  out,  it  should  be  ascertained  that  the 
dimensions  and  fall  have  been  preserved  correctly, 
before  any  of  the  stones  are  placed  in  the  bottom. 

Instead  of  measuring  the  dimensions  of  the  drain 
with  a  tape-line  or  foot-rule,  which  are  both  incon- 
venient for  the  purpose,  a  rod  of  the  form  of  Fig.  32* 


MODE  OF  CUTTING  DRAINS.  105 

will  be  found  most  convenient.  The  rod,  divided  into 
feet  and  inches,  is  put  down  to  ascertain  the  depth  of 
the  drain,  and  then  turned  partially  round  while  rest- 
ing on  its  end  on  the  bottom  of  the  drain,  until  the 
ends  of  its  arm  touch  the  earth  on  both  sides.  If  the 
arms  cannot  come  round  square  to  the  sides  of  the 
drain,  the  drain  is  narrower  than  intended;  and 
if  they  cannot  touch  both  sides,  it  is  wider  than 
necessary. 

Should  water  be  supposed  or  known  to  exist  in  quan- 
tity beloiv  the  reach  of  a  six-feet  drain,  means  should 
be  used  to  render  the  drain  available  for  its  abstraction, 
and  these  means  are,  sinking  wells  and  boring  holes  into 
the  substrata.  A  well  is  made  as  represented  by  a  part 
of  Fig.  33,*  where  a  pit  g  of  the  requisite  depth  is  cast 
out  on  the  lower  side  of  the  drain  a,  if  the  ground  is 
not  level.  A  circular  or  square  opening,  of  three  feet 
in  diameter,  or  three  feet  in  the  side,  will  suffice  for  a 
man  to  work  down  several  feet  by  the  side  of  the  open 
drain  d;  and,  when  the  stratum  which  supplies  the 
water  is  reached,  the  well  should  be  filled  with  small 
stones  to  about  the  height  of  those  in  the  drain,  as 
at  /  and  the  whole  area  of  the  drain  and  well,  should 
be  covered  with  dry  substances  from  /  to  c,  and  the 
earth  is  filled  in  again  above  all,  as  at  g.  In  making 
such  wells,  a  small  scarcement  of  solid  ground,  on  a 
level  with  the  bottom  of  the  building  of  the  conduit 
a,  should  be  preserved,  so  that  the  building  may  have 
a  firm  foundation  to  stand  upon,  and  run  no  risk  of 
being  shaken  by  the  operations  connected  with  making 
the  well.  Such  a  well  should  be  sunk  wherever  water 

*  At  I,  in  this  figure,  is  represented  the  situation  for  an  auger 
bore  into  a  substratum  of  porous  character. 


106  MODE  OF  CUTTING  DRAINS. 

has  been  ascertained  to  be  in  quantity  at  a  lower  depth 
than  the  drain. 

Sub-mains,  small,  and  cross-drains,  are  commenced  in 
the  same  way  as  the  main  drain  (but  they  will  not  be 
required  to  be  opened  wider  at  the  top  than  a  foot  or 
fourteen  inches,  for  a  depth  of  from  three  to  four  feet)? 
namely,  by  stretching  the  line,  and  rutting  off  the 
breadth  at  the  top  with  the  common  spade.  A  second 
man  then  removes  the  top-mould  with  the  spade  ;  and 
if  the  subsoil  is  of  strong  clay,  or  tiles  alone  are  to  be 
used  in  filling  the  drains,  he  lays  the  mould  on  one  side 
of  the  drain,  and  the  subsoil  on  the  other.  In  other 
kinds  of  soils  and  subsoils,  and  where  stones  are  to  be 
used  in  conjunction  with  tiles,  the  separation  of  the  soils 
is  not  necessary.  A  second  man  follows,  and  shovels 
off  all  the  mould,  working  with  his  face  to  the  first  man. 
A  third  man  (for  the  gang  or  set  of  drainers  should 
consist  of  three,  for  expeditious  and  clean  work) 
loosens  the  top  of  the  subsoil  with  the  tramp-pick,  Fig. 
29,  and  proceeds  backward  with  the  picking,  while  the 
other  men  are,  removing  the  mould  along  the  break  or 
division  measured  off  by  the  line,  perhaps  sixty  or 
seventy  yards.  The  second  man  then  removes  the 
loosened  subsoil  with  the  spade  in  Fig.  34,  which  is 
narrower  than  the  common  spade,  being  six  inches 
wide  at  the  point,  digging  with  his  back  to  the  face  of 
the  picker — that  is,  working  backward — and  the  lead- 
ing man  follows  with  a  narrow-pointed  shovel,  Fig.  30, 
called  the  ditcher's  or  hedger's  shovel,  with  which  he 
trims  the  sides  of  the  drain,  and  shovels  out  the  loose 
part  of  the  subsoil  left  by  the  digger. 

Should  the  drain  be  very  wet,  owing  to  a  great  fall 
of  rain,  or  the  cut  draw  much  water  from  the  porosity 


MODK  OF  CUTTING  DRAINS.  107 

of  the  subsoil,  to  secure  a  proper  consistence  to  the 
drain,  it  is  better  to  leave  off  the  digging,  at  this  stage 
of  the  work,  and  proceed  to  set  off  another  length 
of  line  at  the  top  ;  and  it  would  be  expedient  to  remove 
the  top  of  the  whole  length  of  the  particular  drain  in 
hand,  to  allow  the  water  time  to  run  off,  and  the  sides  of 
the  drain  to  harden,  as  perseverance  in  digging  would  be 
attended  with  risk  of  the  sides  falling  in. 
This  precaution  in  digging  drains  is  the  more  ^s84 
necessary  to  be  adopted,  in  digging  narrow 
shallow  drains  than  deep  ones,  as  planks  can- 
not be  used  in  them  to  support  the  falling 
sides,  as  in  Fig.  31,  because  the  men  could 
not  find  room  in  small  drains  to  work  below 
the  wedges  which  keep  up  the  planks.  Should 
the  ground  be  firm,  the  digging  may  properly 
be  proceeded  with  to  the  bottom  at  once. 
To  effect  this,  the  picking  is  renewed  at  the 
lower  part  of  the  drain,  and  another  spit  of 
earth  thrown  out  with  a  still  narrower, 
though  of  the  same  form  of  spade  as  in  the 
last  figure,  being  only  four  inches  wide  at 
the  point.  The  leading  man  trims  down 
the  sides  of  the  drain  with  this  spade,  and 
pulls  out  the  remaining  loose  earth  toward  him  with  the 
scoop,  such  as  in  Fig.  35  ;  or  throws  it  out  with  such 
a  scoop  as  in  Fig.  36 ;  and  thus  finishes  the  bottom  and 
sides  in  a  neat,  even,  clean,  square,  and  workmanlike 
style. 

"What  with  the  experimental  cuts,  and  the  first  two 
spits  of  digging  below  the  mould,  the  property  of  the 
subsoil  will  be  easily  determined,  and,  consequently, 
the  deplh  the  drain  should  go.  If  the  subsoil  prove  tilly, 


103  MODE  OF  CUTTING  DHAIXS. 

but  still  drawing  a  little  water  below  the  mould  down- 
ward, the  drain  should  be  three  feet  deep,  and  fifteen 
inches  wide  at  top  ;  if  of  intermixed  and  minute  veins 
of  sand,  and  otherwise  of  porous  materials,  then  thirty 
inches  of  depth  will  suffice,  and  twelve  inches  of  width 
at  top ;  if  of  quite  impervious  clay,  two  feet  deep  and 
ten  inches  width  at  top  will  be  found  sufficient.  It 
is  better  to  cut  the  drain  a  little  deeper  where  there  is 
any  sudden  rise  of  the  surface,  and  a  little  shallower 
where  there  are  any  sudden  hollows,  than  to  follow  the 
undulations  of  the  ground  where  these  are  trifling.  As 

Fig.  85. 


THE  EARTH  DRAIN  SCOOP. 


to  the  distances  betwixt  the  drains  in  the  first  case  of  a 
tilly  but  drawing  bottom,  fifteen  feet  asunder  is  wide 
enough.  In  the  second  case  of  a  drawing  subsoil, 
drains  at  thirty  feet  asunder  will  effect  as  much  as  in 
the  former  case. 

The  fall  of  the  ground  can  at  any  time  be  ascertained 
by  the  workmen   by  a  simple  contrivance.     As  the 


MODE  OF  CUTTING  DRAINS.  109 

bottom  of  the  drain  is  cleared  out,  a  damming  of  four 
to  six  inches  high  will  intercept  and  collect  the  water 
seeking  its  way  along  the  bottom,  and  by  this  it  can  be 
seen  whether  the  level  line  of  the  water  cuts  the  bottom 
of  the  drain  as  far  up  as  it  should  do  according  to  the 
specified  fall ;  and  a  succession  of  such  dammings  will 
preserve  the  fall  all  the  way  up  the  drain.  When  the 
weather  is  dry,  and  a  sufficiency  of  water  wanting  in 
the  drain  to  adopt  this  mode  of  testing  the  fall,  a  few 

Fig.  86. 


THE   BOG   DRAIN  SCOOP. 


pails  of  water  thrown  in  will  detect  it,  and  of  course  it 
is  only  on  comparatively  level  ground  that  such  expe- 
dients as  these  are  required. 

In  all  cases  of  thorough  draining  there  should  be  a  small 
drain  to  connect  the  tops  of  the  drains  at  the  upper  end  of 
the  field,  to  dry  the  upper  head-ridge,  and  also  to  pro- 
tect the  upper  ends  of  the  ridges  from  any  oozings  of 
water  that  might  come  from  the  fence  ditch,  or  from 
any  rising  ground  beyond  that  end  of  the  field ;  and 
it  should  be  of  the  same  depth,  though  not  deeper,  than 
the  other  drains. 


110  MODE  OF  CUTTING  DRAINS. 

When  drains  have  a  course  along  very  long  ridges, 
it  is  recommended  to  run  a  sub-mam  drain  in  an  oblique 
direction  from  side  to  side.  The  length  of  any  main 
drain  should  not  exceed  two  hundred  yards,  without  a 
sub-main  drain  to  assist  in  carrying  off  the  water ;  but 
Mr.  Smith  says  on  the  subject,  'that  "the  practice  of 
throwing  in  a  cross-drain  is  of  no  further  avail  in  dry- 
ing the  land,  while  it  increases  the  length  of  drain 
without  a  proportionate  increase  of  the  area  drained."* 
Should  the  want,  however,  of  proper 'sized  tiles,  in  any 
particular  part  where  the  quantity  of  water  is  greater 
than  over  the  ordinary  surface  of  the  farm,  induce  the 
making  of  a  sub-main  drain,  rather  than  run  the  risk 
of  the  insufficiency  of  the  drains  below,  it  should  be 
directed  across  the  field,  where,  if  cut  of  the  same  depth 
as  the  other  small  drains.,  those  below  should,  be  dis- 
joined from  it  by  a  narrow  strip  of  ground ;  but  a  much 
better  plan  is  to  make  the  sub-main  six  inches  deeper 
than  the  rest  of  the  drains,  where  it  can  be  so  deepened, 
and  it  will  intercept  the  water  coming  from  the  ground 
above,  while  the  drains  will  pass  continuously  over  it.f 

In  cutting  for  tile  drainage  the  breadth  of  the  sole 
tile  is  the  proper  width  for  the  bottom  of  the  drain ; 
and  except  where  stones  interfere  with  the  digging,  the 
top  of  the  small  tile  drains  need  only  be  opened  a  few 
inches  wide.  Narrow  spades  with  long  handles  are 
made  for  the  purpose,  which,  with  the  scoop,  enables 
the  workman  to  cut  five  feet  deep  with  a  very  small 
surface  cut. 

Peat  Tile  Draining  is  applicable  to  the  draining  of 

*  Smith's  Remarks  on  Thorough  Draining. 
f  Stephens. 


MODE  OF  CUTTING  DRAINS. 


Ill 


mossy,  light  soils,  where  peat  is  plentiful.     The  peats 

are  made  somewhat  of  the  shape  of  drain  tiles  but 

more  massive,  as  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  37.     They  are 

laid  in  the  drain  one  a,  like  a  tile-sole,  and  another 

inverted  upon  it,  as  b,  like  a  drain-tile,  leaving  a  round 

opening  between  them  for  the  passage  of  the  water. 

These  peats  are  cut  out  with  a  spade-tool, 

Fig.  38.     The  spade  is  easily  worked,  and 

forms  a  peat  with  one  cut,  without  any 

waste  of  materials;    that  is,   the  exterior 

semi-circle  b  is  cut  out  of  the  interior  semi- 

circle  of  a.    A  man  can  cut  out  from  2,000 

to  3,000  peats  a  day  with  such  a  spade. 

The  peats  are  dried  in  the  sun  in  summer, 

with  their  hollow  part  upon  the  ground,  THE  PEAT-TILE 

and  are  stacked  until  used ;  and  those  used 

in  drains  have  been  found  to  remain  quite  hard.     The 

frequent  want  of  clay  in  upland  moory  districts  renders 

the  manufacture  of  drain-tiles  on  the  spot  impracticable, 

and  their  carriage  from  a  distance  a  serious  expense.* 

Fig.  33. 


THE  PEAT  TILE  SPADE. 


The  cutting  of  'Sod  Drains,  which,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered, are  adapted  only  to  stiff  clay  soils,  is  executed  by 
removing  the  upper  turf  with  the  common  spade,  and 
laying  it  aside,  for  the  purpose  of  making  it  the  wedge 
at  a  subsequent  part  of  the  operation ;  and,  if  the  turf 


*  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  vii. 


112  MODE  OF  CUTTING  DRAINS. 

is  tough,  so  much  the  better  for  the  durability  of  the 
sod-drain.  Another  spit  is  made  with  the  narrow 
spade,  Fig.  34,  and  the  last  or  undermost  one  is  taken 
out  with  the  narrowest  spade,  represented  in  Fig.  39, 

Fig.  89. 


THE  NAKBOWEST  SPADE  FOB  8OD-DRAIN8. 

which  is  only  two  and  a  half  inches  wide  at  the  mouth ; 
and,  as  its  entire  narrowness  cannot  allow  a  man's  foot 
being  used  upon  it  in  the  usual  manner,  a  stud  or  spur 
is  placed  in  front  at  the  bottom  of  the  helve,  upon 
which  the  workman's  heel  is  pressed,  and  pushes  down 
the  spade  and  cuts  out  the  spit.  The  depth  may  be  to 
any  desired  extent.  The  upper  turf  is  then  put  in  and 
trampled  or  beaten  down  into  the  narrow  drain,  in 
which  it  becomes  wedged  against  the  small  shoulder 
left  on  each  side  of  the  drain,  before  it  can  reach  the 
narrow  channel  formed  by  the  last-mentioned  spade, 
Fig.  39 ;  and  the  channel  below  the  turf,  being  left 
open,  constitutes  the  duct  for  the  water.  It  will  readily 
be  perceived  that  this  is  a  temporary  form  of  drain 
under  any  circumstances,  though  it  may  last  some  time 
in  grass  land,  but  it  seems  quite  unsuited  for  arable 
ground,  which  is  more  liable  to  be  affected  by  dashes 
of  rain  than  grass  land ;  and,  in  any  situation,  the  clay 
in  contact  with  water  will  run  the  risk  of  being  so 
much  softened  as  to  endanger  the  existence  of  the  drain. 
Mole  Drains  are  cut  at  once  with  the  mole  draining 
plough.  This  plough  is  of  extremely  simple  con- " 
struction,  as  will  appear  from  Fig.  40,  which  is  a  view 
of  it  in  perspective.  It  consists  of  a  beam  of  oak  or 


MODE  OF  CUTTING  DRAINS. 


113 


ash  wood,  six  and  a  half  feet  in  length,  and  measuring 
six  by  five  inches  from  the  butt-end  forward  to  four 
inches  square  at  the  bridle  b.  As  the  beam,  when  in 
operation,  lies  close  upon  the  ground,  and  is  indeed  the 
only  means  of  regulating  the  depth  at  which  the  con- 
duit is  to  be  form- 
ed, the  lower  side 
is  sheathed  all  over 
with  a  plate  of  iron 
about  half  an  inch 
thick.  This  plate 
at  the  proper  place, 
(four  ft.  four  inch- 
es or  thereabout, 
~  from  the  point  of 
o  the  beam),  is  perfo- 
£  rated  for  the  coult- 
§  er-box;  its  fore-end 

w 

g  is  worked  into  an 
eye,  which  serves 
as  a  bridle,  and  is 
altogether  strong- 
ly bolted  to  the 
beam.  At  the  dis- 
tance of  a  foot  be- 
hind the  coulter- 
box,  a  strong  stub 
of  wood  is  mortised 
into  the  beam  at  c,  standing  at  the  rake  and  spread  which 
is  to  be  given  to  the  handles.  Another  plate  of  iron,  of 
about  three  feet  in  length  and  half  an  inch  thick,  is  ap- 
plied on  the  upper  .side  of  the  beam  ;  the  coulter-box  is 
also  formed  through  this  plate,  and  the  hind-part  is 


114:  MODE   OF   CUTTING   DRAINS. 

kneed  at  c,  to  fit  upon  and  support  the  stub,  to  which, 
as  well  as  to  the  beam,  the  plate  is  firmly  bolted.  The 
two  stilts  or  handles,  c  f,  are  simply  bolted  to  the  stub, 
which  last  is  of  such  breadth  as  to  admit  of  several 
bolt-holes,  by  which  the  height  of  the  handles  can  be 
adjusted.  That  which  may  be  termed  the  head  of  the 
plough,  is  a  malleable  iron  plate,  of  about  two  feet  in 
length ;  that  part  of  it  which  passes  through  the  beam, 
and  is  there  fastened  by  means  of  wedges,  like  the  com- 
mon coulter,  is  seven  inches  broad  and  three-quarters 
of  an  inch  thick.  The  part  d,  below  the  beam  that 
performs  the  operation  of  a  coulter,  is  nine  inches 
broad,  three-quarters  of  an  inch  thick  in  the  back  edge, 
and  thinned  off  to  a  knife-edge  in  the  front.  The  share 
or  mole  is  a  solid  of  malleable  iron,  welded  or  riveted 
to  the  head ;  its  length  in  the  sole  is  about  fifteen  inches, 
and  in  its  cross  section  (which  is  a  triangle  with  curved 
sides  and  considerably  blunted  on  the  angles)  it  meas- 
ures about  three  inches  broad  at  the  sole,  and  three  and 
a  half  inches  in  height. 

In  working  this  plough,  the  draft-chain  is  attached 
to  the  bridle-eye  at  Z>,  and  it  is  usually  drawn  by  two 
horses  walking  in  a  circular  course,  giving  motion  to  a 
portable  horse  capstan,  that  is  constructed  on  a  small 
platform  movable  on  low  carriage- wheels,  and  which  is 
moored  by  anchors  at  convenient  reaches  of  fifty  to 
sixty  yards.  The  mechanical  advantage  yielded  by  the 
horse  capstan,  gives  out  a  power  of  about  ten  to  one, 
or,  deducting  friction,  equal  to  a  force  of  about  fourteen 
horses. 

When  the  plough  is  entered  into  the  soil  and  moved 
forward,  the  broad  coulter  cuts  the  soil  with  its  sharp 
edge,  and  the  sock  ma£es  its  way  through  the  clay  sub- 


MODE   OF   CUTTING   DRAINS.  115 

soil  by  compressing  it  on  all  sides  ;  and  the  tenacity  of 
the  clay  keeps  not  only  the  pipe  thus  formed  open,  but 
the  slit  which  is  made  by  the  broad  coulter  permits  the 
water  that  is  in  the  soil  to  find  its  way  directly  into  the 
pipe.  The  plough  is  found  to  work  with  the  greatest 
steadiness  at  fifteen  inches  below  the  surface.  The 
upper  turf  is  sometimes  laid  over  beforehand  by  the 
common  plough,  wrhen  the  mole-plough  is  made  to  pass 
along  the  bottom  of  its  furrow,  and  the  furrow-slice  or 
turf  is  again  carefully  replaced.  This  is  the  preferable 
mode  of  working  this  plough,  as  it  serves  to  preserve 
the  slit  made  by  the  coulter  longer  open  than  when  it 
terminates  at  the  surface  of  the  turf,  where,  of  course, 
it  is  liable  to  be  soon  closed  up  ;  but  the  least  trouble 
is  incurred  when  the  plough  is  made  to  pass  through 
the  turf  unploughed. 

To  work  the  whole  apparatus  efficiently,  two  horses 
and  three  men  are  required  ;  they  can  drain  one  acre 
per  day.  This  plough  seems  fitted  for  action  only  in 
pure  clay  subsoils,  and,  when  such  are  found  under  old 
grass,  it  may  partially  drain  the  ground  with  compara- 
tive economy ;  and  the  process  being  really  economical, 
it  may  be  repeated  in  the  course  of  years  in  the  same 
ground.  This  mode  of  draining  cannot  bear  a  com- 
parison for  efficacy  to  tile-draining,  although  it  is  em- 
ployed in  some  parts  of  England,  where  its  effects  are 
highly  spoken  of.* 

An  improvement  in  draining  with  the  mole-plough, 
has  been  invented  by  a  Mr.  Fowler,  who  has  elevated 
the  beam  of  the  mole-plough  on  two  large  wheels  behind 
the  coulter,  and  two  small  ones  in  front,  and  he  attaches 
a  rope  to  the  back  part  of  the  ploughshare  or  mole,  c  : 
*  Stephens, 


116  MODE   OF   CUTTING    DRAINS. 

upon  this  rope,  round  pipe  tiles,  of  a  foot  in  length,  are 
strung  like  beads,  close  together,  and  these  are  carried 
forward  by  the  rope,  and  fill  the  hole  made  by  the  share 
as  it  advances.  By  these  means  the  cut  is  made  and 
laid  with  tile  by  the  same  operation.  This  plough  is 
drawn  forward  by  means  of  a  capstan,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  ordinary  mole-plough.  Lengths  of  rope,  of  fifty 
feet  each,  are  successively  added  as  the  work  proceeds, 
and  the  rope  is  withdrawn  at  the  end  of  each  drain. 
There  is  an  ingenious  contrivance,  by  which  a  man, 
standing  on  the  plough,  can,  by  a  wheel  and  screw, 
work  the  coulter  up  and  down,  to  adapt  the  depth  of  the 
drain  to  the  inequalities  in  the  surface  level,  his  eye  being 
guided  by  a  try -sight  on  the  frame  and  a  staff  at  the  end 
of  the  field,  set  so  as  to  give  any  inclination  to  the  drain. 

After  the  first  cost  of  the  plough,  this  plan  is  said  to 
drain  at  half  the  ordinary  expense.  In  tolerably  free 
soils,  where  there  is  a  good  fall,  it  appears  unobjection- 
able ;  but  in  stiff  clay  lands,  or  in  those  where  the  fall  is 
small  and  the  surface  level  variable,  there  seems  a  diffi- 
culty in  regulating  the  depth  with  accuracy  enough  for 
such  situations. 

Mr.  Stephens  thus  describes  the  cutting  of  the  drain 
represented  in  Fig.  41,  and  which  is  very  imperfect,  for 
many  reasons  that  will  be  apparent  to  the  reader  of  the 
preceding  pages,  but  which  may  be  used,  in  the  opinion 
of  Mr.  Stephens,  in  a  Lilly  subsoil  ivhich  draius  water  a 
little,  situate  in  a  locality  in  which  flat  stones  are  plen- 
tiful and  sufficiently  cheap.  Suppose  a  piece  of  land, 
containing  two  ridges  of  fifteen  feet  in  width,  which  had 
been  gathered  up  from  the  flat,  and  in  this  form  of 
ploughing  there  is  an  open  furrow  on  each  side  of  a 
ridge.  The  drains  are  made  in  this  manner :  Gather 


MODE   OF   CUTTING  DRAINS.  117 

up  the  land  twice,  by  splitting  out  a  feering  in  the 
crown  of  each  ridge,  and  do  it  with  a  strong  furrow. 
Should  the  four-horse  plough  have  been  used  for  the 
purpose,  the  open  furrow  will  be  left  sixteen  inches 
wide  at  the  bottom,  and  if  the  furrow  have  been  turned 
over  twelve  inches  in  depth,  and  the  furrow-slice  laid 
over  at  the  usual  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  the  tops 
of  the  furrow-slices  on  the  furrow-brow,  will  be  thirty- 
two  inches  apart,  as  from  a  to  a,  Fig.  41.  After  this 
ploughing,  the  spade  takes  out  a  trench  from  the  bottom 
of  the  open-furrow  eight  inches  wide  at  top  e,  sixteen 

Fig.  41. 


THE  FLAT  STONE  DRAIN. 


inches  deep  by/  and  three  inches  wide  at  bottom  at  g. 
The  depth  of  the  drain  will  thus  be  thirty-two  inches 
in  all  below  the  crowns  of  the  gathered  up  ridges.  The 
drain  is  filled  by  two  stones,  h  h,  being  set  up  against  its 
side  and  meeting  in  the  bottom  at  g ;  and  they  are 
kept  asunder  by  a  large  stone  of  any  shape,  as  a  wedge, 
but  large  enough  to  be  prevented  by  li  h  descending 
farther  than  to  leave  a  conduit  g  for  the  water.  The 
remainder  of  the  drain  is  filled  to  e  with  small  riddled 
stones,  with  drain-screen,  or  with  clean  gravel.  The 
stones  are  covered  over  with  turf  and  earth,  like  any 
other  drain,  or  with  small  stones  beaten  down  firmly. 


118  MODE    OF    CUTTING   DRAINS. 

The  expense  of  this  method  of  draining  is  small :  the 
spade-work  may  be  executed  at  Id.  the  rood  of  six 
yards,  and  of  an  imperial  acre,  containing  one  hundred 
and  sixty-one  and  a  third  of  such  roods,  the  cutting 
will  cost  13s.  5|d.  The  flags,  at  one  inch  thick  and  six 
inches  broad,  will  make  fifteen  tons  per  acre,  at  4d.  the 
ton,  will  cost  5s.  more.  The  broken  stones,  to  fill  nine 
cubic  feet  in  the  rood  of  six  yards,  at  2  jd.  per  rood, 
will  cost  £1  10s.  3|d.  more;  making  in  all  about  £2 
8s.  8d.*  the  acre,  exclusive  of  carriage  and  ploughing, 
which,  though  estimated,  will  yet  make  this  a  cheap 
mode  of  draining  land  so  closely  as  fifteen  feet  apart. 
This  is  of  course  the  cost  in  Scotland,  but  it  is  cheap. 

Mr.  Stephens  adds  to  the  last-described  drain  the 
following  of  a  similar  character: 

"  A  plan  similar  may  be  practiced  on  strong  clay  land. 
The  open  furrow  is  formed  in  the  same  manner  with 
the  plough,  and,  being  left  sixteen  inches  in  width,  the 
spade  work  is  conducted  in  this  manner :  Leave  a 
scarsement  of  one  inch  on  each  side  of  the  open  furrow 
left  by  the  plough,  as  seen  below  a  a}  Fig.  42,  and  cut 
out  the  earth  fourteen  inches  wide,  perpendicularly, 
and  ten  inches  deep,  as  at  b  b.  Then  cast  out  from  the 
bottom  of  this  cut,  with  a  spade  three  or  four  inches 
wide,  a  cut  five  inches  or  more  in  depth  c,  leaving  a 
scarsement  of  five  inches  on  each  side  of  the  bottom  of 
the  former  cut  b  b.  The  bottom  of  the  small  cut  will 
be  found  to  be  thirty -two  inches  below  the  crowns  of 
the  ridges,  when  twice  gathered  up  with  a  strong  furrow. 
The  drain  is  filled  up  in  this  way  :  Take  flag-stones  of 
two  or  three  inches  in  thickness,  as  c?,  and  place  them 
across  the  opening  of  c  upon  the  five-inch  scarsements, 
*  About  $12. 


MODE    OF   CUTTING   DRAINS.  119 

left  by  the  narrow  spade ;  they  need  not  be  dressed  at 
the  joints,  as  one  stone  can  overlap  the  edges  of  the  two 
adjoining,  and  they  thus  form  the  top  of  a  conduit  of 
pure  clay,  in  which  the  water  may  flow.  As  the  water 
is  made  to  flow  immediately  upon  the  clay,  it  is  clear 
that  this  form  of  drain  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  perma- 
nent one  ;  though  a  flag  or  tile  sole  laid  on  the  bottom 
of  the  cut  c  would  render  it  much  more  durable.  The 

Fig.  42. 


i 

L_ 

THE  CLAY-LAND  8HOTTLDEB  DRAIN. 


cutting  of  this  form  of  drain,  the  workmen  having  to 
shift  from  one  tool  to  another,  will  cost  l|d.  the  rood 
of  six  yards,  which,  at  fifteen  feet  apart,  make  20s.  2d. 
the  acre.  The  flags  for  covers  will  be  twelve  tons,  at 
4d.  per  ton,  4s.  more,  in  all  24s.  2d.,  but  with  ten  tons 
of  soles,  the  cost  will  be  3s.  4d.  more,  or  27s.  6d.*  the 
acre,  exclusive  of  the  carriage  of  stones  and  the  labor 
of  the  plough.  After  the  joinings  of  the  flags  are 
covered  over  with  turf,  the  earth  may  be  returned  into 
the  drain  with  the  plough,  but  with  precaution,  and 
probably  with  the  previous  assistance  of  the  spade ; 
but,  after  all,  the  probability  is  that  flat  stones  cannot 
be  easily  obtained  in  the  neighborhood  of  strong  clay, 
though  this  form  of  drain  may  be  adopted  in  any  sub- 
soils where  flat  stones  are  abundant." 

*  About  $7. 


120  MODE    OF   CL'TTIXG   DRAIXS. 

For  open  surface  drains  a  few  directions  will  suffice. 
To  cut  small  drains  in  grass:  One  plan  is  to  turn  a 
furrow-slice  down  the  hill  with  the  plough,  and  make 
the  furrow  afterward  smooth  and  regular  with  the 
spade.  When  the  grass  is  smooth  and  the  soil  pretty 
deep,  this  is  an  economical  mode  of  making  such  drains, 
which  have  received  the  appellation  of  sheep  drains. 
The  lines  of  the  drains  should  all  be  previously  marked 
off  with  poles  before  the  plough  is  used. 

A  better,  though  more  expensive  plan,  is  to  form 
them  altogether  with  the  spade.  Let  a,  Fig.  27,*  be  a 
cut  thrown  out  by  the  spade,  nine  inches  wide  at 
bottom,  sixteen  inches  of  a  slope  in  the  high  side,  and 
ten  on  the  low,  with  a  width  of  twenty  inches  at  top  on 
the  slope  of  the  surface  of  the  ground.  A  large  turf 
b  is  removed  by  the  spade,  is  laid  on  its  grassy  side 
downward,  on  the  lowest  lip  of  the  cut,  and  the  rest  of 
the  earth  is  placed  at  its  back  to  hold  it  up  in  a  firm 
position,  the  shovellings  being  thrown  over  the  top  to 
finish  the  bank  in  a  neat  manner. 

Another  sort  of  sheep-drain  is  formed  as  represented 
in  Fig.  28.*  A  cut  is  made  six  inches  wide  at  bottom, 
sixteen  inches  deep,  and  eighteen  inches  wide  at  top. 
The  upper  turf  a  is  taken  out  whole  across  the  cut,  as 
deep  as  the  spade  can  wield  it.  Two  men  will  take  out 
such  a  turf  better  than  one.  It  is  laid  on  its  grassy 
face  upon  the  higher  side  of  the  drain,  and  the  earth 
pared  away  from  the  other  side  with  the  spade,  leaving 
the  turf  of  a  trapezoidal  shape.  'While  one  man  is 
doing  this,  the  other  is  casting  out  with  a  narrow  spade 
the  bottom  of  the  cut  b.  The  earth  and  shovelling 
should  be  spread  abroad  over  the  grass  ;  and  the  large 
turf  a  then  replaced  in  its  natural  position,  and  tramped 


MODE   OF  CUTTING  DRAINS. 


121 


down,  thereby  leaving  an  open  space  b  below  it  for  the 
water  to  pass  along.  This  is  not  so  permanent  a  form 
of  sheep  drain  as  the  last,  nor  is  it  at  all  suitable  in 


L 


pasture  where  cattle  graze,  as  they  would  inevitably 
trample  down  the  turf  to  the  bottom  of  the  drain.  It 
is  also  a  temptation  for  moles  to  run  along ;  and  when 
any  obstruction  is  occasioned  by  them  or  any  other 
burrowing  animal,  the  part  obstructed  cannot  be  seen 

6 


122  MODE    OF   CUTTING  DliAIXS. 

until  the  water  overflows  the  lower  side  of  the  drain, 
when  the  turfs  have  again  to  be  taken  up,  and  the  ob- 
struction removed.  It  forms,  however,  a  neat  drain, 
and  possesses  the  advantage  of  retaining  the  surface 
whole  where  sheep  alone  are  grazed.  Figs.  27  and  28 
are  drawn  on  a  scale  of  one-eighth  inch  to  two  inches. 

Open  Surface  Drainage  has  been  extensively  and 
successfully  applied  to  drying  bogs  in  Ireland.  The 
plan  consists  of  dividing  the  bog  into  divisions  of  sixty 
yards  in  breadth,  by  open  ditches  of  four  feet  in  depth 
and  four  feet  wide  at  top,  allowance  being  made  for 
the  sliding  in  of  the  sides  and  subsidence  by  drying, 
and  which  movements  have  the  effect  of  considerably 
diminishing  the  size  of  the  drains ;  and  these  ditches 
are  connected  by  parallel  drains  at  right  angles  three 
feet  three  inches  in  depth,  and  eighteen  inches  in  width. 
Fig.  43  is  a  plan  of  these  drains,  where  a  are  the  large 
ditches  and  b  the  small  drains.  The  ditch  a  at  the  bot- 
tom is  that  which  takes  away  all  the  water  to  some 
large  ditch,  river,  or  lake.  The  fall  in  the  ditches  and 
drains  is  produced  by  the  natural  upheaving  of  the 
moss  above  the  level  of  the  circumjacent  ground,  and, 
of  course,  this  peculiarity  causes  all  the  drainage  of  the 
bog  to  flow  toward  the  land. 

The  small  drains  6,  Fig.  43,  are  made  in  this  man- 
ner :  A  bog  line  is  stretched  at  right  angles  across  the 
division  from  the  large  open  drain  a  to  a,  sixty  yards. 
The  upper  rough  turf  is  rutted  in  a  perpendicular 
direction  along  the  line  with  a  short  edging-iron.  The 
line  is  then  shifted  eighteen  inches,  the  width  of  the 
top  of  the  drain,  and  another  rut  is  made  by  the  edging- 
iron.  While  one  man  is  employed  at  this,  another  cuts 
out  a  thick  turf  across  the  drain  with  the  broad-mouthed 


MODE   OF   CUTTING  DRAINS.  123 

shovel,  Fig.  44 ;  and,  if  any  inequalities  or  ruggedness 
are  observed  in  the  wet  turf,  lie  makes  them  smooth 
and  square  with  a  stroke  or  two  with  the  back  of  the 
shovel.  The  drain  is  thus  left  for  two  months  to  allow 

Fig.  44  Fig.  45.  Fig.  46. 


I'llE  BBOAD-MOUTHED  SHOVEL.         THE  LONG  EDG1NG-IHON.          THE  SMALL  GBAIP. 

the  water  to  run  off,  the  moss  to  subside,  and  the  turf 
to  dry  and  harden. 

At  the  end  of  that  time  the  long  edging-iron,  Fig. 
45,  is  employed  to  cut  down  the  sides  of  a  drain  in  a 
perpendicular  direction  two  feet  three  inches  (see  Fig. 
47),  and  the  flat  shovel  is  also  again  employed  to  cut 
the  moss  into  square  turfs,  which  in  this  case  are  not 
thrown  out  with  the  shovel — as  on  account  of  their 
wet  state  they  cannot  remain  on  its  clear,  wet  face, 
when  \ised  so  far  below  the  hand — but  are  seized  by 


124 


MODE   OF   CUTTING   DRAINS. 


Fig.  47. 


another  man  with  the  small  graip,  Fig.  46,  and  thrown 
on  the  surface  to  dry.  The  work  is  again  left  for  two 
months  more,  to  allow  time  for  the  water  to  drain  off, 
and  the  turfs  to  dry  and  harden. 

In  these  four  months  the  moss  subsides  about  one 
foot.  After  the  two  spits  of  the  shovel,  the  longest 
edging-iron  is  again  employed  to  cut  down  the  last  spit, 
which  is  done  by  leaving  a  shoulder,  e  e,  five  inches 
broad,  on  each  side  of  the  drain,  Fig.  47.  The  scoop, 
Fig.  36,  is  then  employed  to  cut  under  the  last  narrow 
spit,  which  is  removed  from  its  position  by  the  small 
graip.  The  scoop  pares,  dresses 
and  finishes  the  narrow  bottom 
of  the  drain,  with  a  few  strokes 
with  its  back,  making  the  duct 
d  one  foot  deep.  As  no  mate- 
rial but  the  bog  dug  out  is 
used  to  fill  these  drains,  the 
mode  of  completing  of  them  I 
had  better  be  here  stated.  The  j 
filling  of  the  drain  is  performed  I 
at  this  time,  and  it  is  done  in  \ 
this  manner.  The  large  turf; 
5,  Fig.  47,  which  was  first  - 
taken  out,  and  is  now  dry,  is  \ 
lifted  by  the  hand  and  placed,  \ 
grass  side  undermost,  upon  the  '.. 
shoulders  e  e  of  the  drain,  and 
tramped  firmly  down  with  the 
feet.  The  second  large  turf  «, 

which  is  not  so  dry  or  light  as  the  first,  is  lifted  by  the 
graip  and  put  into  the  middle  of  the  drain,  and  the  long 
narrow  stripes  of  turf  c  e  separated  by  the  scoop  from 


THB  BHOTTLDEEED  BOG  DEAIK. 


MODE   OF  CUTTING  DRAINS.  125 

the  bottom,  along  with  other  broken  pieces,  are  also 
placed  by  the  graip  along  both  sides  and  top  of  the 
drain,  and  all  the  sods  just  fill  up  the  subsided  drain. 

Fig.  47  represents  the  drain  thus  finished,  which 
is  well  suited  for  the  drying  of  bog,  and  in  its 
construction  possesses  the  advantage  of  having  all 
the  materials  for  filling  it  upon  the  spot.  A  bog 
drain  requires  no  other  materials  such  as  wood  or 
tiles,  to  fill  it,  there  being  no  material  so  appropriate 
or  more  durable  than  the  moss  itself,  the  slightest  sub- 
sidence in  the  drain  destroying  the  continuity  of  the 
soles  and  tiles,  whether  of  wood  or  clay,  while  those 
made  of  the  latter  substance  will  gravitate  in  the  moss 
by  their  own  weight.  The  scale  of  this  figure  is  one- 
eighth  to  two  inches,  or  three-quarters  of  an  inch  to  one 
foot* 

Boring  with  the  auger  may  be  used  in  some  cases 
instead  of  the  Well,  for  the  purpose  of  piercing  through 
a  retentive  stratum  into  a  porous,  whereby  confined  water 
may  be  brought  up  into  the  bottom  of  the  drain, 
by  altitudinal  pressure,  and  escape;  or  free  water 
may  pass  down  through  the  bore,  and  be  absorbed  by 
the  porous  stratum  below.  In  the  first  case,  the  retreat 
of  the  water  has  to  be  discovered,  in  making  the 
passage  for  it  to  pass  away ;  in  the  second,  it  is  got  rid 
of  by  a  simple  bore.  In  boring  for  water  at  the  bottom 
of  a  drain,  the  bore  should  be  made  at  one  side  rather 
than  in  the  middle  of  the  bottom,  because  any  sediment 
in  the  water  might  enter  the  bore  at  the  latter  place  and 
choke  it,  when  the  water  happened  to  come  up  with  a 
small  force.  In  preparation  of  the  bore,  let  a  cut  %  k, 
Fig.  33,f  be  made  down  the  side  of  the  drain,  and,  in- 

*  Stephens.  f  See  PaSe  104- 


126  MODE   OF  CUTTING  DRAINS. 

serting  the  auger  at  &,  let  the  bore  be  made  down 
through  the  solid  ground,  in  the  direction  of  b  A,  as  far 
as  necessary — the  orifice  of  the  bore  being  made  at  a 
little  higher  level  than  the  bottom  of  the  drain,  and  an 
opening  left  in  the  building  there,  to  permit  the  water 
from  the  bore  to  flow  easily  into  and  join  the  water  of 
the  drain. 

Boring-irons  may  be  as  useful  for  finding  water  for 
fields,  or  for  draining  a  bog,  or  for  ascertaining  the  depth 
and  contents  of  a  moss,  or  for  ordinary  draining.  The 
auger,  a,  Fig.  48,  is  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  and  a 
half  inches  in  diameter,  and  about  sixteen  in  length  in 
the  shell,  the  sides  of  which  are  brought  pretty  close 
together ;  and  it  is  used  for  excavating  the  earth  through 
which  it  passes,  and  bringing  it  up.  "When  more  in- 
durated substances  than  earth  are  met  with,  such  as 
hardened  gravel,  or  thin,  soft  rock,  a  punch  b  is  used 
instead,  to  penetrate  into  and  make  an  opening  for  the 
auger.  When  rock  intervenes,  then  the  chisel  or 
jumper  c  must  be  used  to  cut  through  it ;  and  its  face 
should  be  of  greater  breadth  than  the  diameter  of  the 
auger  used.  There  are  rods  of  iron  cZ,  each  three  feet 
long,  one  inch  square  iron,  unless  at  the  joints,  where 
they  are  one  and  a  half  inch  and  round,  with  a  male 
screw  at  one  end  and  a  female  at  the  other,  for  screwing 
into  either  of  the  instruments,  or  into  one  another,  to 
allow  them  to  descend  as  far  as  requisite.  The  short 
iron  key  e  is  used  for  screwing  and  unscrewing  the  rods 
and  instruments  when  required.  A  cross-handle  of 
wood  f,  having  a  piece  of  rod  attached  to  it,  with  a 
screw  to  fasten  it  to  the  top  of  the  uppermost  rod,  is 
used  for  the  purpose  of  wrenching  round  the  rods  and 
auger,  when  the  latter  only  is  used,  or  for  lifting  up  and 


MODK   OF  CUTTING  DRAINS. 


127 


letting  fall  the  rods  and  jumper  or  punch,  when  they 
are  used.  The  long  iron  key  g  is  used  to  support  the 
rods  and  instruments  as  they  are  let  down  and  taken 
up,  while  the  rods  are  screwed  on  or  off  with  the  short 
key  e.  Three  men  are  as  many  as  can  conveniently 


Fig.  48. 


J 


THE  INSTRUMENTS  FOE  BOEING  THE  BTBSTBATA  OK  DEEP  DEAINS. 

work  at  the  operation  of  boring  drains.  Two  men 
stand  above,  one  on  each  side  of  the  drain,  who  turn 
the  auger  round  by  means  of  the  wooden  handle ;  and, 
when  the  auger  is  full  of  earth  they  draw  it  out,  and 
the  man  in  the  bottom  of  the  drain  clears  out  the  earth, 
assists  in  pulling  it  out,  and  directing  it  into  the  hole. 
The  workmen  should  be  cautious,  in  boring,  not  to  go 
deeper  at  a  time,  without  drawing,  than  the  exact  depth 
that  will  fill  the  shell  of  the  auger;  otherwise  the 
earth  through  which  it  is  boring,  after  the  shell  is  full, 


12«  MODE   OF   CUTTING  DRAINS. 

makes  it  more  difficult  to  pull  out.  For  this  purpose, 
the  exact  length  of  the  auger  should  be  regularly 
marked  on  the  rods  from  the  bottom  upward.  Two 
flat  boards,  with  a  hole  cut  into  the  side  of  one  of  them, 
and  laid  alongside  of  one  another  over  the  drain,  in 
time  of  boring,  are  very  useful  for  directing  the  rods  in 
going  down  perpendicularly,  for  keeping  them  steady 
in  boring,  and  for  the  men  standing  on  when  perform- 
ing the  operation.* 

NOTE. — The  following  is  an  interesting  communication  made  in 
1853  to  the  Koyal  Agricultural  Society  of  England,  on  the  subject  of 
"  Swamp  Drainage  of  Lands  on  Low  Levels,  but  near  rivers  or 
water-courses,"  by  Mr.  John  Dumolo,  of  Dunton  House,  near  Cols- 
hill,  Warwickshire  :  "  I  have  carried  out  this  method  of  drainage  with 
the  best  possible  results.  In  the  first  place,  the  water  is  to  be  re- 
moved from  the  surface  of  the  land  in  many  places  where  there  is 
scarcely  any  fall  or  outlet,  excepting  in  the  adjoining  stream,  that  is 
to  say,  when  the  water  in  the  adjoining  river  or  brook  is  nearly  even 
with  the  surface  of  the  land.  Now,  the  drainage  of  land,  under 
these  conditions,  in  most  cases,  may  be  made  as  effectual  as  is  de- 
sirable, and,  in  many  cases,  the  land  be  made  sufficiently  sound  for 
the  heaviest  of  cattle.  The  method  is  simple,  but  may  require  a 
little  engineering  tact  to  accomplish  the  object.  The  drains  must 
be  laid  even  with  the  bottom  of  the  adjoining  river  or  brook,  or  at 
least  two  or  three  feet  deep  in  the  stream.  There  is  no  fear  but  the 
water  will  issue  from  such  drains,  and  always  pass  off  at  a  great  or 
greater  velocity  than  those  of  the  stream  into  which  the  drainage 
water  will  have  to  enter,  by  reason  that  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
drainage  water,  out  of  such  lands,  will,  I  may  say,  always  be  less 
than  the  river  or  brook  water  is.  The  only  conditions,  I  would  ob- 
serve, necessary  to  be  stipulated  for  are  :  1st.  That  a  shaft  or  pipe 
be  fixed  at  the  upper  end  of  the  drains,  so  that  the  atmospheric 
pressure  may  bear  thereon,  but  not  allowed  to  pass  through.  2d. 
That  the  drains  be  laid  in  a  proper  and  judicious  manner,  with  pipes 
of  not  less  than  two  inches  bore,  and  that  the  trenches  be  well  filled 

*  Stephens. 


MODE   OF  CUTTING  DRAINS.  129 

up.  3d.  That  the  least  number  of  outlets  into  the  discharging 
stream  as  practically  necessary  be  made,  and  that  such  outlets  be 
at  the  lowest  parts  of  the  stream,  as  regards  the  land  to  be  drained. 
I  may  remark  there  will  be  no  detriment  to  the  drainage,  should  the 
bed  of  the  drain  undulate,  or  be  laid  lower  than  the  discharging 
orifice  ;  but  frequently  it  will  be  found  advantageous  to  submerge 
the  drains  purposely,  in  order  to  exclude  the  atmospheric  air,  and 
thus  prevent  or  lessen  the  danger  of  stoppages  from  the  sedimentary 
accumulations  of  the  peroxide  of  iron,  which  often  abounds  in  low 
lands  and  in  bog  earths." 


CHAPTER    X. 

ON  BUILDING  THE  CONDUITS  OR  DUCTS  FOR  SECURING 
THE  FREE  PASSAGE  OF  WATER  THROUGH  DRAINS. 

IN  the  sectional  figures  of  the  different  kinds  of 
drains  that  have  been  given  in  a  previous  chapter,  va- 
rious forms  of  ducts  for  drains  have  been  shown,  and 
the  materials  of  which  they  may  be  constructed  have 
been  pointed  out.  It  only  remains  in  this  place,  to 
give  such  directions  as  will  guide  in  the  building  of 
them. 

.It  is  essential  that  all  deep  drains,  and  main  drains 
especially,  should  be  furnished  with  built  conduits,  that 
the  water  may  have  a  free  passage  in  all  circumstances, 
and  thereby  escape  being  choked  up,  which  would  oc- 
casion the  expense  of  relifting  and  relaying  its  mate- 
rials. The  relifting  of  a  drain  that  has  blown,  that  is, 
of  one  in  which  the  water  is  forced  to  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  in  consequence  of  a  deposition  of  mud 
among  the  stones  preventing  its  flow  under  ground,  is 
a  dirty  and  expensive  business. 

Should  the  ground  be  firm,  and  the  drain  made  in 
summer,  and  the  length  of  any  particular  drain  not 
very  great,  the  conduit  is  most  uniformly  built  when  be- 
gun at  the  top  and  finished  at  the  bottom  of  the  line  of 
drain  ;  but  in  ground  liable  to  fall  down  in  the  sides, 
or  \vhen  the  drain  extends  to  many  roods  in  length, 

(180) 


ON   BUILDING   THE   CONDUITS   OR   DUCTS. 

the  safest  plan  is  to  build  the  conduit  immediately 
after  the  earth  is  taken  out  to  the  bottom. 

A  very  convenient  article  in  the  building  of  conduits 
in  a  deep  drain  is  a  plank  of  five  inches  in  breadth, 
and  of  from  six  to  nine  feet  in  length,  to  put  down 
in  the  middle  of  the  bottom  of  the  drain,  to  afford  a 
dry  and  firm  footing  to  the  builder,  and  to  answer  the 
purpose,  at  the  same  time,  of  a  gauge  of  the  breadth  of 
the  conduit,  a  space  of  half  an  inch  on  each  side  of  the 
plank  giving  a  breadth  of  six  inches  to  the  conduit. 
This  plank  can  be  easily  removed  by  two  short  rope- 
ends,  one  attached  near  each  end  to  an  iron  staple. 

Suppose  the  plank  set  down  at  the  mouth  of  the 
drain  in  the  middle  of  the  cut,  the  dyker  begins  by  leav- 
ing a  conduit  at  the  mouth  of  six  inches  wide,  having 
six  inches  of  breadth  of  building  on  each  side  of  it,  and 
six  inches  high,  and  using  the  plank  as  his  foot-board. 
When  the  building  of  these  dimensions  is  finished  to 
the  length  of  the  plank,  this  is  carried  or  pushed  by  the 
ropes  another  length  upon  the  drain,  and  so  on,  length 
after  length,  until  the  whole  space  of  drain,  when 
cleared  out  to  the  bottom,  is  built  upon.  The  stones 
are  handed  down  from  the  surface  to  the  dyker  by  the 
laborer,  until  the  building  is  finished.  The  plank  is 
then  removed  out  of  the  way,  the  dyker  clears  the 
bottom  of  the  conduit  of  all  loose  earth,  stones,  and 
other  matter,  with  a  hand-draw-hoe,  five  inches  wide  in 
the  face.  Immediately  after  this,  he  lays  the  flat 
covers,  which  extend  at  least  three  inches  on  each  side 
over  the  conduit,  they  being  from  two  to  three  inches 
in  thickness ;  and  they  lie  ready  for  him  on  the  half 
cast  out  division  of  the  drain,  from  which  they  are 
handed  to  him  as  he  works  backward,  The  open 


182        OX   BUILDING   THE   CONDUITS   OR   DUCTS. 

space  left  between  the  meetings  of  the  covers,  which 
will  not  probably  have  square  ends,  should  be  covered 
with  flat  stones,  and  the  space  from  the  ends  of  the 
covers  and  flat  stones  to  each  side  of  the  drain  should 
be  filled  up  and  neatly  packed  with  small  stones.  In 
this  way  the  dyker  proceeds  to  finish  the  conduit  in 
every  division  of  drain.  To  keep  the  finished  conduit 
clear  of  all  impediments,  the  dyker  makes  a  firm  wisp 
of  straw  large  enough  to  fill  the  bore  of  the  conduit ; 
and  which,  while  permitting  the  water  to  pass  through, 
deprives  it  of  all  earthy  impurities. 

Before  the  conduit  is  entirely  finished,  the  drainers 
throw  out  the  earth  of  the  adjoining  division  of  the 
drain  to  the  bottom,  and  the  conduit  is  then  built  upon 
it  in  the  same  manner  as  the  one  just  described. 

The  openings  of  mam  drains  at  their  outlet  should  be 
protected  by  iron  gratings  from  vermin,  which  will 
otherwise  enter  and  cause  obstructions.  _ 

When  the  main  drain  ducts  have  been  built,  the 
small  ducts  may  be  proceeded  with  according  to  what- 
ever mode  of  making  them  has  been  determined  upon  ; 
in  these  the  joining  of  them  to  the  mains  should  be  care- 
fully built,  and  it  will  add  to  their  strength  if  at  each 
junction  an  additional  thickness  of  stones  or  other  fill- 
ing material  be  placed  round  the  joints  to  secure  them 
the  more  effectually  from  being  disturbed  or  misplaced. 

If  it  should  happen  that  in  cutting  out  the  drain,  a 
quicksand  should  be  cut  into,  it  will  present  much  diffi- 
culty to  the  builder,  and  must  be  met  by  the  best 
expedients  within  his  command.  Planks  of  wood  and 
props  with  masonry  within  them  set  in  cement,  is  one 
mode,  if  the  mischief  is  not  too  extensive ;  and  another 
mode  that  has  been  found  to  answer  in  operation,  was 


ON   BUILDING   THE   CONDUITS   OK   DUCTS.        183 

this  :  Thick  tough  turfs  were  provided,  to  lay  upon  the 
sand  in  the  bottom  of  the  drain,  and  upon  these  were 
laid  flat  stones,  to  form  a  foundation  on  which  to  build 
a  conduit  of  stones,  having  an  opening  of  six  inches  in 
width  and  six  or  seven  inches  in  height.  The  back  of 
the  conduit,  when  building,  was  completely  packed  with 
turf,  to  prevent  the  sand  finding  its  way  into  it  from 
the  sides  of  the  drain ;  and  the  packing  was  continued 
behind  the  few  small  rubble  stones  that  were  placed 
over  the  cover  of  the  conduit.  A  thick  covering  of 
turf  was  then  laid  over  the  stones,  so  that  the  whole 
stones  of  the  drain  were  completely  encased  in  turf, 
before  the  earth  was  returned  upon  them.  The  filling 
up  was  entirely  executed  with  the  spade,  least  the 
trampling  of  the  horses  should  have  displaced  any  of 
the  stones.* 

In  constructing  tile  drains  the  cutting  of  the  main 
drain  should  be  entirely  finished  before  the  tiles  are  laid 
in  it ;  and  immediately  after  it  is  finished,  it  should  be 
measured  with  the  drain-gauge,  Fig.  32,  to  ascertain 
if  it  contains  the  specified  dimensions  and  fall. 

While  the  earth  is  throwing  out  toward  the  narrowest 
side  of  the  head-ridge,  the  carts  should  belaying  down 
the  tiles  and  soles  along  the  open  side  next  the  field ; 
they  should  be  placed  end  to  end  along  the  whole  line. 

The  person  intrusted  with  the  laying  of  the  soles  and 
tiles  into  the  drains,  should  be  one  who  has  been  accus- 
tomed to  that  kind  of  work,  and  otherwise  a  good 
workman ;  he  should  be  paid  by  day's  wages,  that  he 
may  have  no  temptation  to  execute  the  work  ill. 

This  person  should  remain  constantly  at  the  bottom 
of  the  drains ;  and,  to  enable  him  to  do  so,  he  should 

*  Stephens. 


134:         ON   BUILDING   THE   CONDUITS   OR   DUCTS. 

have  an  assistant,  to  hand  him  the  materials  from  the 
ground. 

Immediately  before  proceeding  to  lay  the,  sole-tiles, 
the  man  should  remove  any  wet,  sludgy  matter  from 
the  bottom  of  the  drain  with  a  scoop,  Fig.  35,  and  dry 
earth  and  small  stones  can  be  removed  with  a  narrow 
draw-hoe,  as  in  Fig.  49,  with  a  two-feet  handle  b,  and 

Fig.  49. 


THE  NAREOW  DRAW-HOB  FOB  DRAINS.  TIIE  TROWEL  FOR   DRAINS. 

mouth  a  three  inches  in  width.  The  sole  is  firmly  laid 
and  imbedded  a  little  into  the  earth.  Should  it  ride 
upon  any  point,  such  as  a  small  stone  or  hard  lump  of 
earth,  that  should  be  removed  ;  and  a  very  convenient 
instrument  for  the  purpose,  and  otherwise  making  the 
bed  for  the  soles,  is  a  mason's  narrow  trowel,  as  in  Fig. 
50,  seven  inches  long  in  the  blade  a,  nine  inches  in 
the  handle  c,  and  one  and  a  half  inches  at  b.  After 

Fig.  51. 


c  c 

THE  DRAIN-TILES  PROPERLY  SET  UPON  TILE-SOLES. 

laying  three  soles  in  length,  he  examines  with  a  level 
to  see  if  they  are  straight  in  the  face,  and  neither  rise 
nor  fall  more  than  the  fall  of  the  drain. 

After  three  soles  are  thus  placed,  two  tiles  are  set 
upon  them,  as  represented  in  Fig.  51,  that  is,  the  tiles 


ON   BUILDING  THE   CONDUITS  OR  DUCTS.         135 

a  and  b  are  so  placed  as  that  their  joinings  shall  meet 
on  the  intermediate  spaces  between  the  joinings  of  the 
soles  c,  and  this  is  done  for  the  obvious  reason  that, 
should  any  commotion  disturb  one  of  the  soles,  neither 
of  the  tiles,  partially  standing  upon  it,  should  be  dis- 
turbed. In  ordinary  cases  of  water  in  a  main  drain,  a 
tile  of  four  inches  wide  and  five  inches  high  inside  is  a 
good  size ;  and  from  this  size  they  vary  to  five  and 
three-quarters  inches  in  width  and  six  and  a  half  inches 
in  height.* 

If  sole  tiles  have  not  been  provided,  a  wooden  slab 
had  better  be  used  in  the  bottom  for  a  sole,  rather  than 
lay  the  drain  tiles  in  the  earth.  Slates  also  may  be  used 
for  the  same  purpose,  and  will  last  longer  than  wood. 

The  covering,  of  whatever  substance,  should  be  laid 
in  a  row  or  in  heaps  along  the  line  of  the  tiles.  Turf 
is  the  best  covering,  and  it  is  put  over  the  tiles  saddle- 
wise.  If  the  turf  were  cut  twelve  inches  broad  and 
eighteen  inches  in  length,  it  would  just  lap  over  the 
size  of  tile  mentioned  above,  and  rest  its  end  upon 
the  sole  on  both  sides ;  and,  if  it  be  from  two  to  two 
and  a  half  inches  in  thickness,  the  small  space  left  on 
each  side,  between  the  turf  and  the  walls  of  the  drain, 
would  be  filled  up.  When  cut,  the  turfs  should  be  laid 
one  above  another,  in  neat  bundles  of  three  or  four 
turfs,  which  can  be  easily  taken  up,  and  if  not  used  im- 
mediately, should  be  put  in  large  bundles,  to  keep  them 
supple  and  moist ;  but  not  so  kept  a  long  time,  in  case 
of  their  heating  and  fermenting.  If  used  in  summer, 
in  very  dry  weather,  some  water  should  be  thrown  upon 
them  to  keep  them  moist.  A  man  will  cast  from 
four  to  six  cart-loads,  of  one  ton  each,  per  day,  accord- 
*  Stephens. 


136        ON   BUILDING   THE   CONDUITS  OR  DUCTS. 

iug  to  the  smoothness  and  softness  of  the  ground.  Its 
usual  thickness  is  about  three  inches,  when  one  square 
yard  will  weigh  about  fifty -four  pounds,  and  of  course 
one  ton  will  cover  about  forty  square  yards,  or  forty 
roods  of  six  yards  with  turfs  of  one  foot  by  one  and  a 
half  feet. 

On  being  handed  to  him,  the  man  lays  the  turf,  grass 
side  down,  over  the  tiles  in  a  firm  manner,  taking  care 
to  cause  the  joinings  of  the  turf  to  meet  as  near  the 
middle  of  the  tiles  as  practicable,  and  not  over  the 
joinings.  He  takes  care  not  to  displace  the  tiles  in  the 
least,  when  the  turf  is  being  put  over ;  and  to  secure 
the  tiles  in  their  respective  places,  he  puts  earth  firmly 
between  the  covering  and  the  sides  of  the  drain,  as  high 
as  the  turf  over  the  tile.  This  earth  is  obtained  from 
the  soil  that  was  thrown  out ;  and  if  the  subsoil  is  a 
strong  clay,  the  surface  soil  is  the  best,  but  a  porous  sub- 
soil answers  the  purpose.  When  all  these  things  have 
been  done,  the  drain  will  appear  like  the  small  drain, 
Fig.  53. 

The  preparations  for  the  junction  with  the  small 
drains,  should  be  made  during  the  completion  of  the 
main  drain,  in  laying  which  the  man  should  never 
forget  to  make  the  openings  at  the  stated  distances  the 
small  drains  should  enter,  and,  for  this  purpose,  he 
should  be  provided  with  a  six-feet  rod,  marked  off  in 
feet  and  inches,  to  measure  the  distances  as  near  as  he 
can,  in  regard  to  the  fitting  of  the  tiles.  The  covering 
of  turf  should,  of  course,  not  be  put  over  the  openings 
left  for  the  small  tiles,  but  the  openings  should  not  be 
left  wholly  unprotected.  A  bundle  of  straw,  or  rather 
a  turf,  until  the  small  drains  are  connected  with  them, 
will  be  sufficient  to  protect  the  openings. 


ON   BUILDING   THE   CONDUITS  OR   DUCTS.         137 

There  is  a  mode  of  joining  tiles  in  drains  that  meet 
one  another,  that  deserves  attention.  The  usual  prac- 
tice is  to  break  a  piece  off  the  corner  of  one  or  two 
main-drain  tiles,  where  the  tiles  of  the  common  drains 
should  be  connected  with  them.  Another  plan  is  to 
set  two  main-drain  tiles  so  far  asunder  as  the  inside 
width  of  a  common-drain  tile,  and  the  opening  on  the 
other  side  of  the  tiles,  if  not  occupied  in  the  same 
manner  by  the  tiles  of  another  drain,  is  filled  up  with 
pieces  of  broken  tiles  or  stones,  or  any  other  hard  sub- 
stance. Both  plans,  however,  are  highly  objectionable, 
and  should  never  be  resorted  to  where  tiles,  formed  for 
the  purpose  of  receiving  others  in  their  sides,  can  be 
procured. 

Main  Drain  Tiles  of  different  lengths  should  be  pro- 
vided made  with  openings  to  receive  the  shouldered  end 
of  the  furrow- tiles.  Fig  52  represents  the  mode  of 
joining  a  common  drain  Fig.  52. 

with  a  main-drain  tile, 
having  an  opening  in  its 
side.  The  common  tile  b 
is  not  inserted  entirely  in- 
to the  main-drain  tile  a,but 
only  placed  against  it,  with 
a  small  shoulder,  that  the 

Openings  of  both  tiles  may      THE  JUKCTIOH  OP  A  COMMON  TILE 

be  always  in  conjunction.*  A  *AIX-DBAI»  ONE- 

The  mouth  of  all  main  drains  at  the  outlet,  whether 
in  a  ditch  or  river,  should  be  protected  with  masonry, 
and  dry  masonry  will  do.  The  last  sole  which  should 
be  of  stone,  should  project  as  far  beyond  the  mouth  as 
to  throw  the  water  either  directly  upon  the  bottom,  or 
upon  masonry  built  up  by  the  side  of  the  ditch.  The 

*  Stephens. 


138         ON   BUILDING   THE   CONDUITS   OR   DUCTS. 

masonry  should  be  founded  below  the  bottom  of  the 
ditch,  and  built  in  a  perpendicular  recess  in  its  side, 
with  the  outer  face  sloping  in  a  line  with  the  slope  of 
the  ditch.  The  sloping  face  can  be  made  either  straight, 
which  will  allow  the  water  to  slip  down  into  the  ditch, 
or  like  steps  of  a  stair,  over  which  the  water  will  de- 
scend with  broken  force.  It  would  be  proper  to  have 
an  iron  grating  on  the  end  of  the  outlet,  to  prevent 
vermin  creeping  up  the  drain  ;  not  that  they  can  injure 
tiles  while  alive,  but  in  creeping  too  far  up,  they  may 
die,  and  cause  for  a  time  a  stagnation  of  water  above 
them  in  the  drain. 

The  outlet  forms  the  end  of  the  main  drain,  and  its 
proper  place  deserves  serious  consideration.  There 
should  be  a  decided  fall  from  the  outlet,  whether  it  is 
affected  by  natural  or  artificial  means.  If  it  be  very 
small — and  a  small  fall  is  all  that  is  absolutely  requi- 
site— that  is  one  inch  in  150  feet,  or  three  feet  in  the 
mile,  as  indicated  by  the  spirit  level — the  open  ditch 
into  which  the  main  drain  issues  should  be  scoured 
deep  enough  for  the  purpose,  even  for  a  considerable 
distance;  and  when  this  expedient  is  adopted,  it  will 
be  requisite  to  see  every  year  that  the  outlet  is  kept 
open,  and  the  ditch  scoured  as  often  as  necessary  for 
the  purpose.  It  is  desirable,  however,  to  have  a  greater 
fall  where  the  ground  admits  of  it. 

If  the  ground  fall  uniformly  toward  the  main  drain 
over  the  whole  field,  the  small  drains  should  be  pro- 
ceeded with  immediately  after  the  main  drain  is  fin- 
ished ;  but  should  any  hollow  ground  occur  in  the 
field  too  deep  for  its  waters  to  find  their  way  direct  to 
the  main  drain,  then  a  sub-main  drain  should  be  made 
along  the  lowest  part  of  the  hollow,  to  receive  all  the 


ON   BUILDING  THE   CONDUITS   OK  DUCTS.         139 

drainage  of  the  ground  around  it,  in  order  to  transmit 
it  to  the  main  drain.  The  size  of  sub-main  drains  is 
determined  by  the  extent  of  drainage  they  have  to 
effect. 

Sub-main  drains  are  made  in  all  respects  in  the  same 
manner  as  main  drains  ;  but  they  will  most  probably 
have  to  receive  small  drains  on  both  sides,  on  account 
of  the  position  they  may  occupy  in  the  area  of  a  field, 
when  they  will  require  just  double  the  number  of  tiles 
with  openings  in  the  side  than  the  main.  In  order  to 
avoid  the  interference  of  sediment  from  opposite  small 
drains,  these  should  not  enter  the  sub-main  directly 
opposite  to  each  other,  nor  should  their  ends  enter  at 
right  angles,  but  at  an  acute  angle. 

The  sub-main  drain  should  be  as  far  below  the  small 
drain  as  the  main  itself  when  it  receives  the  small 
drains  directly,  and  for  the  same  reasons  ;  and  the  main 
should  be  as  far  below  the  sub-main  as  the  latter  is  be- 
low the  small  drains.  The  way  to  effect  both  these 
purposes  is,  to  make  the  main  drain  deeper  after  its 
junction  with  the  sub-main.  The  main  drain  being 
tiled,  the  small  ones  may  be  laid. 

Small  drains,  as  well  as  mains  and  sub-mains,  should 
be  completely  cast  out,  gauged,  and  examined  for  the 
fall,  before  being  filled  up  ;  and  the  materials  for  doing 
so  should  be  laid  clown  beside  them,  as  in  the  case  of 
mains.  The  tiles  for  small  drains  are  smaller  than  for 
mains  an^  sub-mains,  being  two  or  three  inches  wide 
and  three  or  four  inches  high,  inside  measurement. 
Soles  for  small  drains  are  of  different  breadths,  but 
they  should  always  be  two  inches  wider  than  the  tiles, 
so  that  they  may  rest  securely  on  them  without  danger 
of  slipping  from  the  subsiding  of  the  soil.  The  filling 


140         ON   BUILDING  THE  CONDUITS  OR  DUCTS. 

of  the  small  drains  is  conducted  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  mains  and  sub-mains,  and  they  are  finished  as 
represented  by  Fig.  53. 

While  casting  out  the  bottom  of  the  end  of  each 
small  drain,  care  should  be  taken  in  communicating  it 
with  the  main  or  sub-main  with  which  it  is  to  be  con- 
nected, that  no  displacement  of  tiles  takes  place  in 
either ;  and  when  the  bottom  is  cleared  out,  the  turf 

Fig.  58. 


THE   S3£ALL  TILE-DEAHf. 


or  small  bundle  of  straw  left  in  the  openings  of  the 
sides  of  the  tiles  is  removed,  and  the  opening  examined, 
and  any  extraneous  matter  that  may  have  got  into  the 
tiles  removed.  The  places  for  the  entrance  of  the  small 
drain  tiles  having  been  prepared  while  constructing  the 
main  and  sub-mains,  there  will  be  no  difficulty  of  ef- 
fecting the  junction  between  the  respective  sorts  of 
drains.  Thus  one  small  drain  after  another  is  finished, 
until  the  field,  having  been  begun  at  one^ide,  is  fur- 
nished with  drains  by  the  time  the  other  is  reached. 
The  small  drain  connecting  the  tops  of  all  the  small 
drains  along  the  upper  end  of  the  field,  should  not  be 
neglected. 

When  circular  pipe  tiles  are  used  they  should  be 


ON   BUILDING  THE   CONDUITS   OR  DUCTS.         141 

furnished  with  "  collars"  which  are  short  lengths  of 
pipe  of  diameter  sufficient  to  go  over  the  tiles  and 
cover  the  joints,  a  collar  being  used  at  each  joint. 
Unless  this  precaution  is  adopted  these  tiles  are  more 
liable  to  become  displaced  at  the  joints  by  the  sub- 
siding of  the  bottom  of  the  drain  from  wet,  than 
tiles  are  that  are  laid  upon  soles  separate  from  the 
tiles ;  because  the  joints  in  the  latter  case  are  broken 
with  those  of  the  tiles  as  directed  in  the  instructions 
for  laying  them  down,  and  as  is  seen  in  the  Fig.  51. 
For  the  same  reason,  horse-shoe  tiles  laid  with  loose 
soles  are  preferable  to  those -made  with  the  soles  at- 
tached, unless  slate  or  flat  stone  be  first  laid  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  cut  of  the  drain  for  the  tile  sole  to  rest 
upon,  in  which  case  the  joints  should  be  broken  as 
above  mentioned.  But  this  mode  takes  more  material. 


CHAPTER    XI. 

FILLING   UP   THE   CUTTINGS   FOR   THE    DRAINS,    AFTER 
THE   CONDUITS   AND   DUCTS  ARE   CONSTRUCTED. 

IT  is  of  great  moment  that  the  filling  of  the  drains 
after  the  ducts  are  built  should  be  done  with  judgment 
as  to  the  manner,  and  with  care  in  executing  it. 

It  is  quite  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  all  that  has  to 
be  done  is  to  throw  in  dirt,  stones,  or  rubbish  in  any 
way,  so  that  the  cutting  is  filled  and  made  level  with 
the  surface.  On  the  contrary,  very  much  depends  upon 
the  proper  way  of  filling,  both  as  to  efficiency  in  the 
working  of  the  drainage,  and  also  as  to  durability. 

Three  principal  things  in  filling  must  be  remembered. 

First.  That  for  the  drainage  to  work  well  in  stiff  soils, 
the  filling  immediately  above  ducts  must  in  all  drains 
for  some  distance  upward  toward  the  surface,  be  of  a 
porous  open  texture,  that  the  water  from  the  neigh- 
borhood of  them  may  pass  readily  into  them. 

Second.  That  in  deep  and  thorough  drains  likewise 
(except  in  clayey  land)  the  filling  above  the  last  named 
porous  material  should  be  of  a  close,  tenacious  soil,  so 
as  to  prevent  the  direct  passage  of  water  downward 
immediately  over  the  cutting,  for  (as  has  been  before 
explained)  that  would  injure  the  durability  of  the 
drainage  by  carrying  down  extraneous  matters  tending 
to  choke  up  the  drains. 

(U9) 


FILLING    UP  THE  CUTTINGS.  143 

Third.  That  in  thorough  drainage  of  very  stiff  day 
lands,  the  last-mentioned  caution  must  be  disregarded, 
and  the  drains  require  to  be  filled  all  the  way  to  the 
surface  with  open  porous  material. 

All  deep  drains,  whether  furnished  with  stones  or  tiles, 
should  receive  their  supply  of  water  from  below,  and  not 
immediately  from  above  through  the  soil.  Were  drains 
entirely  filled  with  loose  mould,  or  other  loose  materials, 
the  rain,  percolating  directly  through  them,  will  arrive  in 
the  drain  loaded  with  as  many  of  the  impurities  that 
the  soil  may  contain,  as  it  could  carry  along  with  it ; 
and  in  time  they  might  either  collect  in  quantities  in 
the  ducts,  or  fill  up  the  interstices  between  the  stones. 
To  prevent  these  mischances,  the  way  is  to  return  the 
clayey  subsoil  into  the  drain,  where  it  will  consolidate, 
and  resist  the  direct  gravity  of  rain. 

In  the  case  of  a  free  open  subsoil  to  the  bottom  of 
the  drain,  the  most  retentive  portion  of  the  earth  may 
be  returned  immediately  above  the  tiles  or  stones  used. 
But  should  the  part  of  the  drain  occupied  by  the  tiles 
or  stones  be  of  strong,  impervious  clay,  as  much  of  the 
loose  subsoil  should  be  placed  above  the  tiles  or  stones 
as  would  give  an  easy  access  to  the  water,  and  all  the 
space  above  that  may  consist  of  clay.  "  The  general 
rule,  for  filling  the  drains  with  the  earth  that  has  been 
thrown  out  of  them  is,  that,  with  the  exception  of 
strong  clay  soils — the  drains  in  which  should  be  filled 
with  porous  materials,  that  the  water  on  the  surface 
may  descend  through  them  into  the  duct  below — that> 
with  this  exception,  every  kind  of  drain  should  be  filled 
near  its  top  with  the  strongest  soil  afforded  by  the 
drain,  in  order  to  prevent  the  descent  of  the  water  into  the 
drain  by  the  top,  but  rather  that  the  water  shall  seek  its 


144  FILLING    UP  THE   CUTTINGS. 

way  through  the  ploughed  ground,  and  thence  by  the 
porous  materials  above  the  duct,  and  under  the  clay 
put  in  above  them  into  the  duct  at  the  bottom. 
Through  such  a  channel  of  nitration  the  water  will 
have  every  chance  of  entering  the  duct  in  a  com- 
paratively pure  state. 

"In  the  case  of  strong  clay  soil,  were  drains  filled  up 
above  the  tiles  with  pure  clay,  the  ultimate  effect  would 
be  that  the  duct  would  remain  open,  but  no  water  would 
ever  enter  it.  To  make  them  draw  at  all,  there  must  loose 
materials  be  put  above  the  tiles  within  two  or  three 
inches  of  the  plane  upon  which  the  sole  of  the  plough 
moves;  and  to  obtain  the  greatest  depth  of  loose 
materials  for  such  drains,  they  should  be  made  in  the 
open  furrows.  As  they  cannot  draw  but  through  the 
loose  materials,  and  are,  in  fact,  covered  ditches,  they 
must  receive  their  supply  of  water  like  any  other  ditch, 
from  above ;  but  here  the  analogy  ceases,  for  instead 
of  receiving  their  water  direct  from  the  top  like  a 
ditch,  they  should  receive  it  by  percolation  through  the 
ploughed  soil,  and  when  the  water  has  descended  through 
the  soil,  deprived  of  most  of  its  impurities,  it  meets 
the  retentive  subsoil  across  the  whole  area  of  the  ridge, 
upon  which  it  moves  under  the  arable  soil  until  it 
meets  with  the  loose  materials  in  the  drains,  by  which 
it  is  taken  down  into  the  ducts  to  be  conveyed  away. 
The  loose  materials  may  be  gravel,  sand,  peaty  earth, 
scoriae  from  furnaces,  refuse  tanners'  bark,  and  such 
like. 

11  In  a  subsoil  that  draws  only  a  little  water,  were  the 
clayey  subsoil  returned  immediately  above  the  tiles,  it 
would  have  the  effect  of  counteracting  the  purpose  for 
which  the  drains  were  made,  because  it  would  curtail 


OP   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

r 

.'--BILLING    UP   THE   CUTTINGS.  145 

^^^j^j—^j^gSUS^^ 

the  drawing  surface  to  only  the  height  of  the  tiles 
themselves.  The  method,  therefore,  to  fill  such  drains 
is  to  put  loose  materials  immediately  above  the  tiles, 
to  a  height  not  so  far  as  in  the  case  of  pure  clay  drains, 
but  to  within  one  half  a  foot  of  the  plane  of  the  plough's 
sole-shoe.  Were  the  drains  in  such  a  subsoil,  however, 
filled  with  stones,  the  case  would  be  different,  for  these 
would  secure  a  sufficient  drawing  surface,  and  the 
clayey  subsoil  may  be  returned  immediately  on  their 
top  with  perfect  propriety."* 

To  proceed  with  filling  the,  main  Drains — the  duct 
being  built  and  covered  in  as  before  directed! — the 
stones  are  thrown  in  promiscuously  upon  the  covers, 
until  they  reach  a  height  of  two  feet  above  the  bottom 
of  the  drain,  where  they  are  levelled  to  a  plain  surface. 
They  have  been  recommended  to  reach  the  height  of 
four  feet,  and  when  the  drain  is  filled  with  rubble 
stones  entirely,  this  height  is  desirable,  to  give  the 
water  plenty  of  room  to  find  its  way  into  it ;  but  with 
a  conduit  such  as  in  Fig.  33,  more  than  two  feet  seems 
an  unnecessary  supply  of  stones,  unless  in  places  where 
water  is  more  than  usually  abundant.  It  has  also  been 
recommended  to  break  this  upper  covering  of  stones 
very  small ;  but  in  deep  draining,  there  seems  no  good 
reason  for  the  adoption  of  such  a  practice,  while  it 
enhances  the  cost  very  considerably.  Ordinary  land 
stones  or  quarry  rubbish  are  quite  suitable  for  the  pur- 
pose, and  should  any  of  the  stones  be  unusually  large, 
they  can  be  broken  smaller  with  a  sledge-hammer. 
Should  the  stones  be  brought  as  they  are  required,  the 
process  of  filling  would  be  greatly  expedited  were  they 

*  Stephen?.  f  See  Chapter  on  Building  Ducts. 


146  FILLING    L'P   THE   CUTTINGS. 

emptied  at  once  out  of  the  cart  into  the  drain.  This 
could  be  done  by  backing  the  cart  to  the  edge  of  the 
drain,  and  letting  the  shafts  or  movable  body  of  the 
cart  rise  so  gently  as  to  pour  out  the  stones  by  degrees. 
To  save  the  edge  of  the  drain,  and  break  the  fall  of  the 
stones,  a  strong,  broad  board  should  be  laid  along  the 
side  of  the  drain,  with  its  edge  projecting  so  far  as  to 
cause  the  stones  to  fall  down  into  the  middle  of  it.  A 
short  log  of  wood  placed  in  front  of  the  board  will  pre- 
vent the  wheels  of  the  cart  coming  farther  back  than 
itself.  To  prevent  the  stones  doing  injury  to  thin 
covers  of  drains  they  should  not  be  allowed  to  fall 
direct  upon  them,  but  upon  the  end  of  the  stones  pre- 
viously tfirown  in,  from  which  position  numbers  will 
roll  down  of  themselves  upon  the  covers  without  force, 
and  the  remainder  can  be  levelled  down  \vith  the  hand 
before  the  next  cart-load  is  emptied.  There  is  a  very 
considerable  saving  in  the  expense  of  filling  drains 
in  this  way,  provided  it  be  done  in  the  cautious 
manner  just  described,  compared  with  the  plan  of 
laying  down  the  stones  when  the  drain  is  ready  to 
receive  them,  and  then  throwing  them  singly  in  by 
the  hand. 

The  levelled  surface  of  the  stones  should  be  covered 
with  some  dry  material  before  the  earth  is  put  over 
them.  The  best  substance  for  the  purpose  is  turf,  and 
should  the  field  be  in  grass  when  it  is  drained,  the  turf 
over  the  drain  could  be  laid  aside,  and  used  for  cover- 
ing the  stones.  Other  materials  answer,  such  as  dried 
leaves,  coarse  grass,  moss,  tanners'  refuse  bark,  or 
straw.  The  object  of  placing  anything  upon  the  stones 
is  to  prevent  the  loose  earth  finding  its  way  among 
them ;  and,  although  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  any 


FILLING    UP   THE   CUTTINGS.  147 

of  the  substances  recommended  will  continue  long 
undecomposed,  they,  however,  preserve  their  consist- 
ence until  the  earth  above  them  becomes  so  consoli- 
dated as  to  retain  its  firmness  afterward. 

After  the  drain  has  been  sufficiently  filled  with 
stones,  the  earth  which  was  taken  out  of  it  should  be 
returned  as  quickly  as  possible,  in  case  rain  fall  and 
wash  the  earth  down  its  sides  among  the  stones.  The 
filling  in  of  the  first  earth  of  a  deep  drain  is  usually 
included  in  the  contract  made  with  the  drainer,  and 
done  with  the  spade,  because  no  horse  can  assist  in  that 
operation  until  the  earth  has  been  put  in  to  such  a  height 
as  to  enable  him  to  walk  upon  it  nearly  on  a  level  with 
the  ground.  The  men  may  either  put  in  all  the  earth 
with  the  spade,  or  they  may  put  in  so  much  as  to  allow 
the  plough  to  do  the  remainder,  but  in  both  cases  a  little 
is  left  elevated  immediately  over  the  drain,  to  subside 
to  the  usual  level  of  the  ground.  There  will  be  much 
less  earth  left  over  the  filling  than  you  would  imagine 
from  the  quantity  thrown  out  at  first,  and  the  space 
occupied  by  the  stones ;  and  it  soon  consolidates  in  a 
drain,  especially  in  rainy  weather. 

The  section  of  such  a  drain  is  seen  in  Fig.  33*,  where 
a  is  the  opening  of  the  conduit  six  inches  square,  built 
with  dry  masonry,  and  covered  with  a  flat  stone  at 
least  two  inches  thick ;  and  above  it  is  a  stratum  of  loose 
round  stones  6,  sixteen  or  eighteen  inches  in  thickness. 
The  covering  above  the  stones  is  c,  and  the  earth 
returned  into  the  drain  is  df,  with  the  portion  e  raised 
a  few  inches  above  the  ordinary  level  of  the  ground. 
The  mouths  of  such  conduits  when  forming  outlets,  should 

*  See  Chapter  on  Cutting  Drains. 


148  FILLING    UP   THE   CUTTINGS. 

be  protected  against  the  inroads  of  vermin  by  close  iron 
gratings. 

In  filling  drains  made  on  the  thorough  drainage  sys- 
tem, some  modification  of  the  proceeding  from  that 
described  above  is  necessary.  The  proper  way  to  com- 
mence the  filling  of  the  drains  in  this  shallow  mode  of 
draining,  where  they  are  numerous,  is  from  the  upper 
to  the  lower  end — and  not  from  the  lower  to  the  upper 
— that  the  bottom  of  the  drain  should  be  cleared  out 
effectually  with  the  scoop  before  the  materials  are  put 
in,  and  this  is  most  easily  done  down  the  natural  de- 
clivity of  the  ground ;  and  besides,  it  is  at  once  seen 
whether  the  fall  has  been  preserved,  by  the  following 
of  the  water  down  the  declivity.  In  deep  draining  the 
case  is  otherwise,  because  in  that  case  the  drains  being 
few  in  number,  and  each  possessing  importance,  the 
falls  should  be  previously  determined  by  levelling,  and 
the  amount  of  each  levelling  marked,  by  which  means 
they  can  be  preserved  as  the  filling  proceeds. 

Stones  are  the  most  durable  material  to  use  for  filling 
in  the  part  of  the  drain  immediately  above  the  stone 
or  tile  duct,  and  they  must  be  broken  with  hammers  to 
the  smallness  of  from  two  and  a  half  to  four  inches  in 
diameter.  It  is  a  pernicious  practice,  to  mix  stones  of 
different  sizes  in  a  drain,  as  such  can  never  assort  to- 
gether, and  nothing  can  be  more  absurd  than  to  throw 
in  a  stone  which  nearly  fills  up  the  bottom  of  a  drain, 
and  is  sure  to  make  a  dam  across  it  to  intercept  water. 
Eound  small  stones,  such  as  are  found  by  the  sea-side, 
are  the  best  for  drain  filling,  because  the  angular  sur- 
faces of  broken  stones  favor  the  consolidation  into  a 
more  compact  and  less  porous  or  open  body  than  round 
ones :  yet  as  the  places  that  afford  small  round  stones 


FILLING    UP   THE   CUTTINGS. 


149 


naturally  are  very  limited  in  number,  it  is  far  better  to 
take  any  sort  of  quarried  stones  than  leave  land  un- 
drained,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  almost  every  sort  of 
stones  forms  an  efficient  and  durable  drain  if  employed 
in  a  proper  manner. 

Fig.  54. 


THE  DRAIN  STONE  HARP   OB  SCREEN. 


When  these  stones  are  procured,  whether  in  a  natu- 
ral state  or  broken,  they  should  be  screened  in  order  to 
get  them  assorted  as  to  size. 

The  best  mode  of  doing  this  is  by  means  of  a  porta- 
ble screen  or  harp  for  riddling  and  depositing  the  stones. 
Fig.  54,  which  consists  of  a  wheelbarrow  a,  over 
which  is  suspended  a  screen  5,  having  the  bars  more  or 
less  apart,  according  to  the  description  of  materials  in- 
tended to  be  used.  The  upper  end  is  hung  upon  two 
posts  c  c  about  three  feet  above  the  barrow ;  the  lower 


150  FILLING   UP  THE   CUTTINGS. 

end  rests  upon  the  opposite  side  of  the  barrow.  To 
this  lower  end  is  affixed  a  spout  d,  attached  about  ten 
inches  from  the  lower  extremity  of  which  is  a  board  e, 
by  means  of  two  arms/  Another  screen  </,  about  one- 
half  the  length,  and  having  the  bars  about  half  an  inch 
apart,  is  hung  parallel,  about  ten  inches  below  the 
larger  one.  The  upper  end  of  g  is  fixed  by  means  of 
two  small  iron  bars  li  to  the  upper  end  of  the  larger 
screen ;  the  lower  end  rests  upon  a  board  i  sloping  out- 
ward upon  the  side  of  the  barrow  opposite  to  that  on 
which  the  spout  d  is  situate. 

The  stones  are  put  in  in  this  manner :  The  earth  is 
all  put  on  one  side  of  the  drain.  The  barrow-screen 
is  placed  on  the  other,  so  as  the  board  e,  Fig.  54, 
attached  to  the  lower  end  of  the  spout  c?,  shall  reach 
the  opposite  side  of  the  drain  k.  The  cart,  with  a 
load  of  broken  stones,  is  brought  to  the  same  side  of 
the  drain  as  the  barrow,  and  the  stones  are  emptied 
over  the  top  of  the  screen.  The  larger  ones,  rolling 
down,  strike  against  the  board  e,  Fig.  54,  and  drop  into 
the  middle  of  the  drain,  without  disturbing  the  earth 
on  either  side.  The  smaller  ones,  at  the  same  time, 
pass  through  the  upper  screen  &,  and,  being  separated 
from  the  rubbish  by  falling  on  the  lower  screen  g,  roll 
down  into  the  barrow  a,  while  the  rubbish  descends  to 
the  ground  on  the  side  of  the  barrow  farthest  from  the 
drain. 

The  best  form  of  shovel  for  putting  the  stones  over 
the  top  of  the  screen  is  what  is  called  a  frying-pan  or 
lime  shovel,  represented  by  Fig.  55. 

One  man  takes  charge  of  the  filling  of  the  drain. 
His  duties  are  to  move  the  barrow  forward  along  its 
side,  as  the  larger  stones  are  filled  to  the  required 


FILLING   UP  THE  CUTTINGS. 


151 


height ;  to  level  them  with  the  rake,  Fig.  56 ;  to  shovel 
the  smaller  stones  from  the  barrow,  spread  them  regu- 
larly over  the  top  of  the  larger,  and  beat  them  down 
with  the  beater,  Fig.  57,  so  as  to  form  a  close  and  level 
surface  through  which  no  earth  may  pass.  When  the 
stones  are  broken  in  the  quarry  so  as  to  pass  through 

Fig  56. 


Fig.  65. 


Fig.  57. 


THE  FK7ING-PAN  OR 
LIME-SHOVEL. 


THE  DBAHT 
STONE  BAKE. 


THE  DRAIN  STONE 
BEATER. 


a  ring  four  inches  in  diameter,  a  quarter  of  them  is  so 
small,  or  should  be  made  so  small  as  to  pass  through 
the  wires  of  the  upper  screen  &,  Fig.  54,  which  are  one 
and  three-quarters  inches  apart ;  and  they  then  will  be 
found  sufficient  to  give  the  top  of  the  drain  a  covering 
of  two  or  three  inches  deep,  which,  being  beaten  closely 


152 


FILLING   UP   THE   CUTTINGS. 


down,  requires  neither  straw,  turf,  or  anything  else  to 
cover  them. 

With  regard  to  covering  with  vegetable  substances,  Mr. 
Roberton  says,  with  mueh  probable  truth,  that  "  the 
only  possible  use  of  a  covering  of  straw  or  turf  is  to 
prevent  any  of  the  earth  when  thrown  back  into  the 
drain,  getting  down  among  the  stones ;  but  it  is  evident 
that  such  a  covering  will  soon  decay,  and  then  it 
becomes  really  injurious,  because,  being  lighter  (and 
finer)  than  the  soil,  it  will,  when  decomposed,  be  easily 
carried  down  by  any  water  that  may  fall  directly  upon 
the  drain ;  and,  if  the  surface  of  the  stones  has  been 
broken  so  small  as  to  prevent  the  drain  sustaining  any 
injury  in  this  way,  then  the  covering  itself  must  be 
altogether  superfluous." 

A  drain  completed  in  this  manner  with  stones  may 
be  seen  in  Fig.  58.     The  dimensions  given  by  Mr. 
Roberton  are  thirty  ^three  inches 
deep,  seven  inches  wide  at  bottom, 
and  nine  inches  wide  at  the  height 
of   the  stones,  whicli  is   fifteen 
inches ;  and  within  these  dimen- 
sions fifteen  cubic  feet  of  stones 
will  fill  a  rood  of  six  yards  of 
drain.     The  figure  represents   a 
drain  thirty-six  inches  deep,  nine 
inches  wide   at  bottom,    twelve 
inches  at  the  top  of  the  stones, 
and  the  stones  eighteen  inches 
deep.   These  dimensions,  give  cu- 
bical contents  of  twenty -three  and 
a  half  feet  per  rood  of  six  yards  ;  that  is,  about  half  as 
many  more  stones  than  the  drains  of  Mr.  Roberton.* 
*  Stephens. 


FJg.  53. 


THE  SHALL  DRALN  FILLED  WITH 
SMALL  BROKEN  STONES. 


FILLING    UP   THE   CUTTINGS.  153 

In  the  foregoing  part  of  this  chapter,  directions  have 
been  given  for  filling  where  stones  are  the  material 
used :  the  same  method  will  be  pursued  when  clinkers, 
broken  bricks,  coarse  gravel,  or  any  hard  material,  is 
substituted  for  stones. 

For  filling  lush  or  brush-wood  drains,  the  mode  of 
placing  the  wood  in  them  to  form  the  duct,  has  been 
already  described  in  Chapter  VII.,  and  they  must  after- 
wards be  filled  to  the  surface  on  the  same  plan  as  if 
they  had  stone-ducts  and  filling ;  using  shaving,  spray, 
wood  shavings,  tanners'  bark,  leather  cuttings,  or  chips, 
or  any  other  porous  matter  that  is  available. 

Where  earth  only  can  be  had,  sand,  peat,  and  light 
earth,  is  the  best,  if  at  hand,  to  place  immediately 
above  the  duct,  in  the  place  of,  and  in  the  cases  that 
small  stones,  when  procurable,  have  above  been  di- 
rected to  be  used. 

When  the  proper  quantity  of  broken-stones,  or  other 
porous  material,  has  been  placed  in  the  drains,  the  next 
procedure  is  the  filling  up  of  the  drains  with  the  earth 
that  was  thrown  out  of  them,  which  is  returned  either 
with  the  spade  or  the  plough,  or  both.  When  drains 
are  furnished  with  stones,  the  plough  may  be  used  from 
the  first,  giving  it  as  much  land  for  the  first  bout  or 
two  as  it  can  work  with.  If  the  earth  has  been  thrown 
out  on  both  sides,  a  strong  furrow  on  each  side  of  the 
top  of  the  drain  will  fill  in  a  considerable  quantity  of 
the  earth ;  but,  as  the  earth  is  generally  thrown  out  on 
one  side  of  the  drain,  and  the  plough  can  only  advance 
the  earth  toward  the  drain  while  going  in  one  direction, 
that  is,  going  every  other  landing  empty,  or  without  a 
furrow,  a  more  expeditious  mode  of  levelling  the 
ground,  which,  in  the  considerable  labor  of  returning 
7* 


154  FILLING   UP  THE   CUTTINGS. 

the  earth  into  all  the  small  drains  of  a  field,  is  a  matter 
of  some  importance,  is  to  cleave  down  the  mound  of 
earth  thrown  out,  and  then  take  in  a  breadth  of  land 
on  both  sides  of  the  drain,  and  gather  it  up  twice  or 
thrice  toward  the  middle  of  the  drain,  after  which  the 
harrows  will  make  the  ground  sufficiently  level.  This 
species  of  work,  however,  is  only  required  when  much 
earth  has  been  thrown  out,  and  thrown  a  distance  from 
the  drain,  in  deep  draining ;  lut  in  tltorougli-draining, 
what  is  accomplished  by  the  plough  is  done  with  much 
less  trouble.  When  the  plough  alone  is  used  for  this 
purpose,  the  first  two  furrows  are  taken  round  the 
mouth  of  the  drain,  and  fall  into  it  with  considerable 
force;  and,  where  tiles  alone  are  used,  such  a  fall  of 
earth  may  be  apt  to  break  or  displace  them ;  and  even 
the  steadiest  horses,  which  should  only  be  employed  at 
this  work,  run  the  risk  of  slipping  in  a  hind  foot  into 
the  drain,  which,  in  attempting  to  recover,  may  be  over- 
strained ;  and  such  an  accident,  trifling  as  it  may  seem, 
may  be  attended  with  serious  injury  to  the  animal. 
The  safest  mode,  therefore,  both  for  horses  and  tiles  is, 
in  all  cases,  to  put  the  first  portion  of  earth  into  the 
drain  with  the  spade ;  and  there  is  this  advantage 
attending  the  use  of  the  spade,  that  a  better  choice  can 
'be  made,  if  desired,  of  the  earth  to  be  returned.  The 
surface  earth  may  first  be  put  in  before  the  poorer 
subsoil.* 


CHAPTER    XII. 

STOPPAGES  IN  DKAINS. 

THE  stoppage  of  drains  sometimes  produces  much 
inconvenience  and  expense.  Stoppages  arise  prin- 
cipally from  two  causes.  The  one,  from  the  ducts  of 
drains  becoming  displaced  in  their  position,  which 
happens  occasionally  in  stone  and  in  tile  drains ;  and 
the  other,  from  the  drains  getting  filled  up  with  some 
extraneous  matter  which  obstructs  or  wholly  prevents 
the  passage  of  the  water,  in  which  case,  when  they  get 
overcharged,  and  the  force  of  the  water  passing  through 
them  is  considerable,  they  become  "blown"  or  burst, 
and  the  water  drives  an  outlet  to  the  surface. 

The  first  cause  generally  arises  from  fault  in  the 
original  making  of  the  drains,  and  consequently  is 
much  within  control ;  but  where  very  swampy  ground 
or  quicksands  prevail,  additional  precaution  must  be 
had  recourse  to  in  the  construction.  The  second 
cause  of  stoppage  arises  sometimes  from  bad  con- 
struction in  regard  to  filling  also,  but  sometimes  from 
the  nature  of  the  soil  causing  the  drainage  water 
to  hold  great  quantities  of  silt  and  fine  sandy  particles 
in  suspension ;  which,  unless  it  be  well  filtered  by  the 
material  around  the  duct  of  the  drain,  gets  into  it,  and 
is  deposited  in  the  bottom  of  the  drains  in  its  passage 
along  them.  This  is  to  be  guarded  against  to  a  great 

(155} 


156  STOPPAGES    IX    DRAINS. 

extent  by  care  in  the  filling  of  the  drain,  and  has  been 
particularly  adverted  to  in  the  chapter  on  that  subject. 
But  where  this  deposit  takes  place,  notwithstanding  all 
precaution  of  that  sort  that  the  circumstances  within 
control  permit,  it  is  advisable  to  open  the  main  drains 
at  distances  of  a  few  yards,  and  dig  wells  at  their 
bottom  some  three  feet  or  more  deep  and  stone  the 
sides,  but  leave  them  empty;  so  that  as  the  water 
passes  along  the  drain,  it  may  deposit  the  suspended 
matter  in  them,  which  it  will  do ;  and  the  situation  of 
these  wells  or  pits  being  marked,  they  can  be  examined 
and  emptied,  with  little  trouble  and  expense,  period- 
ically. 

In  some  localities,  minerals  and  other  matters  held 
in  solution  by  water,  will,  when  it  is  exposed  to  the 
greater  contact  with  air  in  the  drains,  become  disen- 
gaged and  deposited  from  the  alteration  of  their 
chemical  combinations.  Of  this  the  following  is  an 
instance,  communicated  by  a  correspondent  of  the 
Agricultural  Gazette :  , 

"  I  have  lately  been  much  interested  by  the  perusal 
of  the  communications  of  several  correspondents  on 
this  subject,  and  as  I  am  a  sufferer,  though  from  a 
different  cause  to  any  I  have  seen  stated,  I  take  the 
liberty  of  laying  my  case  before  you,  and  shall  be  much 
obliged  by  the  suggestion  of  a  remedy.  I  have  on  my 
farm  a  twenty-acre  piece  of  boggy  land,  which  when  I 
came  in  possession  in  1851,  was  in  a  most  wretched 
state,  and  as  full  of  water  as  it  was  possible  for  land  to 
be.  My  landlord,  Sir  W.  W.  Wynne,  Bart.,  consented 
to  drain  it  for  me,  and  accordingly  Mr,  John  Green, 
an  experienced  person  whom  he  employs,  and  his  staff, 
were  sent  over  to  commence  operations.  The  main 


STOPPAGES   IN   DRAINS.  157 

drain  or  outlet  was  put  in  600  or  700  yards  in  a  straight 
line,  with  double  tiles  forming  a  culvert  for  the  water 
eleven  and  a  half  by  five  and  a  half  inches,  and  from 
six  to  nine  feet  deep;  from  this  several  other  main 
drains  were  put  in,  in  other  directions,  to  tap  the  banks 
of  the  elevated  ground  adjoining,  the  principal  main 
being  of  the  same  sized  tiles  with  others  of  six-inch 
and  four-inch  pipes,  with  furrow  drains  of  three-inch 
and  two-inch  pipes  tapping  the  banks  ten,  twelve,  and 
in  some  places  sixteen  feet  deep. 

"  All  went  on  very  satisfactorily,  and  the  undertaking 
was  perfectly  successful ;  the  large  main  culvert  dis- 
charging at  a  furious  rate,  two-thirds  full  of  water,  and 
the  land  by  the  spring  of  1852  had  become  quite  sound 
and  dry,  and  continued  so  until  the  thaw  of  the  great 
fall  of  snow  in  the  beginning  of  January  last,  when 
one  day  walking  across  the  land,  I  found  that  there  was 
a  stoppage  in  one  of  the  drains.  I  sent  over  to  Mr. 
Green,  but  we  found  the  land  so  charged  with  water, 
that  the  attempt  at  examination  was  suspended ;  but 
eventually  it  was  found  that  the  large  culvert  was  half 
filled  with  a  yellow  deposit,  same  as  enclosed  sample,  and 
although  perfectly  slimy  and  loose,  it  had  formed  in 
such  quantity  as  to  stop  the  large  stream  of  water  in 
the  mains.  Orders  were  given  to  open  holes  at  twenty 
yards'  distance  from  each  other,  a  cord  was  lowered  by 
the  stream  from  one  hole  to  the  other,  a  sweeper  was 
attached  to  the  cord  formed  of  holly  or  gorse,  and  by 
this  means,  with  a  deal  of  trouble,  all  the  main  drains 
were  cleaned ;  the  furrow  drains  were  poked  with  long 
rods  fastened  together,  and  thus  all  were  put  in  good 
working  order  again.  The  liquor  from  which  tha  de- 
posit forms,  oozes  out  of  the  land  in  many  places  about 


158  STOPPAGES  IN   DRAINS. 

one  or  two  feet  above  the  pipes  in  the  drains,  and  I 
find  that  some  of  the  four-inch  pipes  that  were  made 
quite  clean  about  a  month  ago,  have  already  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  thick  of  this  yellow  substance  which 
I  have  enclosed,  formed  and  settled  in  them.  It  is 
proposed  to  make  brick-holes  similar  to  pump- wells, 
say  two  feet  eight  inches  diameter,  frequently  along  the 
mains,  so  as  to  be  able  to  examine  and  brush  them  (as 
described  above)  when  we  find  it  necessary ;  but  the 
question,  and  what  we  wish  to  arrive  at  is,  what  is  the 
nature  of  the  deposit?  Is  it  likely  that  it  will  perco- 
late out  of  the  land  (where  I  presume  it  has  been  pent 
up  for  very  many  years)  in  a  year  or  two,  or  will  it  in 
your  opinion  continue  to  harass  us  for  some  length  of 
time  ?" 

Upon  this  letter  the  editor  of  the  Agricultural 
Gazette  makes  the  following  remarks :  "  The  deposit 
is  no  doubt  ferruginous,  and  of  the  kind  indicated  by 
Mr.  Parkes  in  his  Newcastle  lecture.  Eain-water  will 
dissolve  oxide  of  iron  in  a  vegetable  soil,  but  the  car- 
bonate of  the  protoxide  of  iron,  which  is  thus  held  in 
solution,  is  decomposed  on  coming  in  contact  with  the 
air  in  the  drain:  the  iron  assumes  a  higher  state  of 
oxidation,  which  it  could  not  do  in  the  vegetable  soil  ; 
and  the  peroxide  thus  formed,  being  insoluble  in  water, 
is  deposited,  and  fills  up  the  drain.  The  remedy  is  by 
persevering  exposure  to  the  air,  and  by  the  application 
of  lime,  which  will  engage  all  the  acids  likely  to  dissolve 
it,  and  carry  it  into  the  drains,  to  facilitate  the  perfect 
oxidation  of  the  mischievous  protoxide."* 

But  one  of  the  most  troublesome  causes  of  the  stop- 

*  Agricultural  Gazette,  April  15, 1854. 


STOPPAGES   IN    DRAINS.  159 

page  of  drains  arises  from  a  circumstance  not  easily 
guarded  against,  namely,  the  disposition  of  the  roots 
of  trees,  and  of  some  weeds,  to  insinuate  themselves 
into  drains,  where  they  find  the  dark  but  moist  situa- 
tion congenial  to  a  rapid  development  of  their  parts. 
Several  remarkable  cases  of  this  kind  have  been  re- 
corded, some  of  which  are  here  extracted,  that  the  im- 
portance of  taking  all  practicable  precautions  against 
so  great  an  evil  may  be  manifest  to  the  reader,  and 
that  he  may  gather  some  hints  as  to  the  way  of  re- 
medying it. 

Stoppage  of  drains  by  the  Roots  of  Trees.  "The  most 
remarkable  instance  which  I  have  ever  seen,  came  under 
my  observation,  a  few  days  ago,  in  the  Eegent's  Park. 
The  drain  in  question  was  cut  and  the  pipes  laid  only 
about  this  time  last  year  It  was  a  main  drain,  formed 
at  the  point  of  obstruction  with  six-inch  pipes.  For 
some  considerable  distance  the  side  drains,  in  connec- 
tion with  this  main,  have  a  very  slight  inclination,  and, 
for  the  last  six  or  eight  weeks,  the  part  which  these  drains 
traverse  (a  distance  of  five  hundred  or  six  hundred 
yards),  has  indicated  a  want  of  activity  which  could  not 
be  satisfactorily  accounted  for.  It  occurred  to  me  it  was 
probable  that  a  pipe  had  given  way,  and  a  partial  stop- 
page had,  in  consequence,  taken  place,  as  I  could  see 
from  the  test  pot  on  this  main,  that  the  current  was  not 
so  copious  as  in  another  drain  which  run  parallel  with 
it,  and  received  about  an  equal  amount  of  drainage. 
I  consequently  selected  two  points  on  the  line  of  the 
suspected  drain,  and  dug  to  the  pipes  in  each  case.  At 
the  one  next  to  the  test  pot  I  found  the  current  perfect, 
but  at  the  other  the  water  rose  twelve  inches  above  the 


160  STOPPAGES   IN    DRAINS. 

pipes.  I  then  proceeded  to  ascertain  the  cause,  which 
resulted  in  the  discovery  of  an  immense  mass  of  roots, 
which  occupied  the  pipes  for  a  continuous  line  of  about 
six  feet.  The  parent  root,  where  it  entered  the  drain, 
was  only  three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  yet 
the  whole  volume  of  pipes  nearest  to  the  point  of  in- 
trusion, was  completely  filled  with  the  fibrous  growth 
from  it,  which  gradually  tapered  off  to  a  point.  The 
stoppage  had  been  so  progressive,  that  the  water  had 
forced  an  imperfect  course  over  the  pipes,  which  pre- 
vented its  rising  to  the  surface,  and  at  once  indicating 
the  mischief.  The  nearest  tree  was  an  Italian  poplar, 
standing  at  the  distance  of  seventy-six  feet,  and  which, 
no  doubt,  was  the  offending  party.  Here  is  an  example 
of  the  necessity  for  avoiding  trees  in  works  of  drainage — • 
in  a  main  drain  above  four  feet  deep,  formed  of  six- 
inch  pipes,  being  rendered  useless  in  twelve  months  by 
the  roots  of  a  tree  standing  seventy-six  feet  distant. 
Of  course  those  trees  whose  roots  have  a  natural  ten- 
dency to  seek  water,  and  to  increase  rapidly  when  in 
contact  with  a  running  stream,  are  most  to  be  guarded 
against.  The  poplars,  willows,  and  alders,  are  partic- 
ularly mischievous  in  this  respect,  but  most  trees  will 
produce  a  great  quantity  of  fibrous  roots,  when  in  such 
a  favorable  position  as  is  furnished  by  a  rapid  current 
of  water  in  a  close  drain.  This  discovery  (I  allude 
more  particularly  to  the  distance  from  the  tree  and  ra- 
pidity of  growth  of  the  roots)  gives  rise  to  serious 
fears  as  to  the  durability  of  draining  wherever  trees 
are  standing  within  a  distance  for  their  roots  to  reach 
the  drains.  What  may  be  the  extent  necessary  to 
place  drains  beyond  the  reach  of  free  growing  trees,  I 
cannot  venture  to  say;  but  from  the  rapidity  with 


STOPPAGES   IK   DRAINS.  161 

which,  in  this  instance,  so  large  a  pipe  lias  been  choked 
up  in  a  few  months,  and  at  a  distance  of  seventy-six 
feet  from  the  tree,  it  would  appear  that  drains  cannot 
be  safe  at  a  less  distance  than  one  hundred  feet,  and 
even  then  it  may  be  doubtful  if  in  time  the  roots  will 
not  reach  them  at  a  greater  distance. — P.  Mitchell,  62 
Henry  street,  Portland  town,  London."* 

The  Grardeners'  Chronicle  of  the  27th  May,  1854, 
contains  an  article  by  the  editor,  upon  the  Stoppage  of 
Drains  by  Roots,  in  which  he  says :  "A  striking  ex- 
ample has  just  occurred  at  Florence  Court,  the  seat  of 
the  Earl  of  Enniskillen,  in  consequence  of  the  intrusion 
of  the  roots  of  a  large  tree  of  Salix  alba,  (the  white 
willow,)  which,  in  the  short  space  of  eighteen  months, 
did  its  work  most  effectually.  The  pipe  tiles,  of  a  four- 
inch  bore,  were  laid  in  a  drain  four  feet  deep,  and  cov- 
ered up  in  July,  1852  ;  in  January  of  the  present 
year,  the  drain  was  observed  not  to  be  acting,  and 
was  in  consequence  opened ;  the  pipe  was  completely 
choked  with  roots  to  the  distance  of  fifty-one  feet,  and 
the  mass  of  roots  so  interwoven  as  to  resemble  a  thick 
rope.  Two  circumstances,  more  especially,  deserve  no- 
tice in  this  case.  In  the  first  place  the  pipes  were  col- 
lared, that  is  to  say,  each  joint  in  a  line  of  pipes  was 
secured  by  an  external  short  pipe.  Hence  it  appears 
that  collaring  does  not  offer  an  effectual  barrier  to  the 
passage  of  roots  into  drains.  Secondly,  the  position 
and  distance  of  the  willow  tree  in  question,  seemed  to 
render  the  introduction  of  its  roots  improbable.  It 
stood  upon  the  top  of  a  bank,  between  six  and  eight 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  drained  ground,  while  the 

*  Agricultural  Gazette,  Dec.  31, 1853. 


162  STOPPAGES  IN   DRAINS. 

drain  that  was  choked  was  sunk  four  feet  below  the 
level,  and  was  nine  feet  in  a  direct  line  from  the  tree. 
Nevertheless,  the  roots,  after  passing  seven  or  eight  feet 
perpendicularly  down  the  embankment,  and  then  trav- 
elling somewhat  obliquely  nine  feet  further,  reached  a 
depth  of  four  feet,  and  then  having  insinuated  them- 
selves into  some  crevice,  in  eighteen  months  spread 
above  fifty  feet  further,  filling  in  their  course  a  four- 
inch  bore  as  completely  as  if  they  had  been  rammed 
into  the  space." 

Stoppage  of  drains  by  Water  Weeds.  "  My  attention 
was  first  attracted  to  this  subject  thirty-three  years 
since,  at  Berry  Pomeroy.  The  water  that  supplies  the 
village  is  brought  down  in  pipes  from  a  hill  about  half 
a  mile  distant  in  an  easterly  direction.  These  pipes 
frequently  choke  ;  and  a  force-pump  being  used,  the 
long  hair-like  filaments  are  driven  out  with  violence, 
and  the  choking  removed.  On  carefully  examining, 
in  a  large  tub  of  water,  the  mass  thus  extracted,  I 
found  it  to  consist  of  numerous  filaments  of  great  tenu- 
ity and  of  immense  length,  extending  very  many 
yards.  There  did  not  appear  to  be  any  rootlet,  but  as 
far  as  it  was  possible  to  trace  the  mode  of  'growth,  the 
filaments  appeared  to  spring  one  from  another  in  par- 
allel lines,  and  it  would  seem  to  ascend  against  the 
stream.  On  subjecting  the  filaments  to  a  powerful  mi- 
croscope, it  was  discovered  that  they  were  copiously 
in  bloom,  although  quite  undiscoverable  by  the  unas- 
sisted eye.  The  blossoms  were  white,  of  a  pearly  lus- 
tre, erect,  but  very  minute.  It  so  happens  that  Den- 
bury,  similarly  situated  on  a  dry  limestone  soil,  is  sup- 
plied with  water  by  pipes  from  a  neighboring  hill,  at 
nearly  the  same  distance  as  at  Berry  Pomeroy.  On 


STOPPAGES  ix  DRAINS.  163 

making  inquiries  there,  it  was  found  that  the  water 
coming  into  the  centre  of  the  town,  falls  into  a  tank  or 
reservoir,  which  stores  it  for  the  use  of  the  inhabitants : 
that  the  pipe  conveying  the  water  does  not  touch  the 
surface  of  the  stored  water :  and  consequently,  the  fila- 
mentous or  thread-like  weed  does  not  ascend  and  choke 
the  pipes.  This  circumstance  may  be  taken  advantage 
of  to  prevent  the  nuisance  complained  of;  for  if  the 
drain  pipes  are  clean  and  free,  it  will  suffice  to  make  a 
perpendicular  fall  of  one  and  a  half  or  two  feet  at  the 
nozzle  of  the  flow-pipe,  which  will  prevent  the  fila- 
ments from  ascending  and  choking  the  drain  pipes." — 
Agricultural  Gazette,  March  18th,  1854. 

In  the  Second  Edition  of  Dr.  Lindley's  Theory  of 
Horticulture,  the1  following  instance  is  mentioned  : — 
"  Patrick  Neil  mentions  an  instance  of  a  plant  of  Kag- 
wort,  (Senecio  Jacoboea,)  which  had  insinuated  the 
point  of  its  roots  into  a  drain,  and  had  then  extended 
them  so  much  as  to  fill  the  drain  completely  for  about 
twenty  feet.  And  thus  it  is  seen  that  it  is  by  the  point 
that  roots  extend,  with  an  indefinite  power  of  branch- 
ing ;  and  that  the  finest  thread  once  introduced  into  a 
drain  pipe,  will  rapidly  become  the  origin  of  most  ex- 
tensive mischief,  provided  the  plant  is  perennial.  A 
still  more  remarkable  case  is  mentioned  in  the  Garden- 
ers' Chronicle  for  1849,  of  a  line  of  pot  pipes  from  forty 
to  fifty  feet  long,  socketed  and  cemented,  and  thought 
to  be  perfectly  closed,  having  become  so  choked  by 
roots  as  to  be  unserviceable  in  fifteen  months.  In  the 
side  of  one  of  the  pipes  there  had  been  one  mere  chink, 
and  through  that  chink  some  tree  had  insinuated  the 
point  of  some  root.  Once  inserted,  the  point  lengthen- 


164  STOPPAGES  IN  DRAINS. 

ed  and  divided,  and  lengthened  and  divided  over  and 
over  again ;  till  at  last  the  drain  pipe  was  filled  by  an 
entangled  mass  of  fibres,  which  had  pressed  so  firmly 
against  each  other  as  to  form  in  some  places  a  tolera- 
bly perfect  mould  of  the  cavity." 

Stoppage  of  drains  by  roots  of  Mangold  Wurzel.  "  It 
is  impossible  to  over  estimate  the  importance  of  deter- 
mining the  conditions  under  which  drains  are  most 
likely  to  be  obstructed  by  roots,  whether  of  trees,  root, 
or  corn  crops.  My  own  experience  tends  to  show  that 
the  chief  mischief  is  when  there  is  a  perennial  flow 
through  the  drain.  Some  time  since,  I  communicated 
the  fact  of  Mangold  Wurzel  roots  entirely  choking  a 
drain  for  nearly  fifty  yards.  This  drain  was  cut  through 
the  gault  clay  to  its  conjunction  with  the  rubble  beds  of 
the  upper  green  sand.  Tapping  a  spring,  at  that  point, 
into  this  main  drain,  which  was  cut  directly  down  the 
slope,  a  number  of  transverse  drains  are  led,  cut  solely 
in  the  gault,  and  not  tapping  the  spring :  consequently, 
only  carrying  water  after  heavy  rains,  and  usually  quite 
dry  during  the  period  of  vegetation  :  these  drains  were 
not  stopped  by  roots.  ISTow  that  the  question  has  been 
taken  up,  it  should  be  sifted.  It  is  clear  that  the  depth 
of  the  drain  is  no  safeguard.  It  often  happens,  as  in 
the  case  before  mentioned,  when  impervious  clays 
underlie  pervious  strata,  under  the  slope  of  hills,  &c., 
that  open  drains  might  be  cut  to  carry  off  the  perennial 
water,  and  that  other  drains  might  be  so  arranged  as  to 
carry  the  water  running  at  intervals.  Under  all  cir- 
cumstances, I  believe  that  further  investigation  will 
prove,  that  the  great  mischief  by  roots  is  confined  to 
drains  carrying  perennial  water,  and  that  it  will  be 


STOPPAGES  IN   DRAINS.  165 

found  necessary,  as  far  as  may  be,  to  keep  sucli  drains 
distinct  from  those  carrying  intermittent  water."* 

With  the  view  of  the  ready  means  of  examining  and 
repairing  drams  when  stoppages  occur,  if  for  no  other 
reason,  a  Map,  or  plan,  should  be  made  at  the  time  of 
laying  drainage,  showing  the  situation  of  drains,  with 
their  depth  in  different  situations,  placed  in  figures 
upon  it.  This  will  save  much  labor,  time,  and  expense, 
on  all  subsequent  occasions  when  the  examination  of 
the  drains  is  requisite. 

Stoppage  of  drains  ~by  Weeds.  About  1852  or  '53,  the 
drains  in  many  different  parts  of  England,  that  dis- 
charged themselves  into  rivers,  were  stopped  up  by  a 
new  water  weed,  to  which  the  name  of  "  Anacharis 
Alsinastrum"  has  been  given.  The  rapidity  of  its 
growth,  and  the  extent  of  its  progress  in  a  short  time, 
over  a  large  portion  of  the  country,  has  created  great 
interest  in  it  there,  but,  as  we  are  not  aware  that  it  has 
visited  this  part  of  the  world,  it  is  not  necessary  here 
to  pursue  the  investigation  of  its  habits.  Mr.  William 
Marshall,  of  Ely,  has  paid  much  attention  to  the  sub- 
ject, and  has  published  a  small  work  upon  it.  Amongst 
other  remedies  for  its  ravages,  is  one  of  a  singular 
nature,  put  forward  by  the  following  communication 
to  the  Gardeners1  Chronicle  of  the  18th  November, 
1854,  from  a  gardener  and  nurseryman  of  respecta- 
bility, which  might  be  tried  upon  other  vegetable 
nuisances  of  an  analogous  nature :  "  With  reference  to 
the  destructive  propensities  of  swans,  as  directed  against 
the  anacharis  alsinastrum,  if  you  will  refer  to  the  Gar- 
deners'1 Chronicle  of  ten  or  eleven  years  back,  you  will 

*  Gardeners'  Chronicle,  June  3, 1854. 


166  "STOPPAGES  IN  DRAINS. 

find  a  similar  fact  registered  by  myself,  which,  though 
it  brought  me  into  some  little  ridicule  at  the  time,  was 
still  a  fact  for  all  that.  I  believe,  however,  that  these 
birds  destroy  as  many  weeds,  in  swimming  about  and 
pulling  them  up,  as  they  do  in  eating  them ;  and  it  is 
quite  certain,  that  almost  everything  less  strong  than 
Iris  Pseud  acorus,  must  soon  perish  under  their  inces- 
sant cropping.  About  four  years  back,  we  tried  to  keep 
the  swans  from  the  water  immediately  contiguous  to 
the  lawn,  but  the  weeds  spread  rapidly,  and  we  were 
glad  to  avail  ourselves  again  of  their  assistance.  An- 
other season,  weeds  being  scarce,  the  swans  attacked  a 
remarkably  strong  plant  (a  dense  mass,  several  yards 
through)  of  Nymphcea  alba,  and  in  one  night  they  de- 
stroyed almost  every  leaf,  leaving  merely  the  stems  and 
midrib.  Such  small  weeds  as  the  anacharis  will  stand 
no  chance  with  a  few  swans,  and  are  sure  to  be  exter- 
minated ;  and  a  few  geese  and  ducks  will  not  be  found 
unworthy  assistants  in  the  work  of  destruction. — 
William  P.  Ayres." 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

SYPHON  DRAINAGE — MR.  J.  B.  DENTON  ON  THE  SUB- 
SURFACE LINE  OF  MOISTURE — COST  OF  DRAINAGE — 
MISCELLANEOUS  MATTERS — TABLE  FOR  CALCULATING 
THE  CAPACITY  OF  DRAINS  AND  DITCHES. 

IN  tlie  removal  of  masses  of  surface  water  on  a  large 
scale,  the  principle  of  the  syphon  has  been  frequently  em- 
ployed with  great  success.  Although  connected  with  the 
subject  on  which  this  work  treats,  it  would  too  greatly 
increase  its  intended  limits,  to  go  into  that  branch  of 
drainage ;  but  the  subjoined  extract  from  Dr.  Lindley's 
Gardeners1  Chronicle,  of  the  22d  October,  1853,  is  made 
to  call  attention  to  the  ingenious  mode  adopted  to  relieve 
the  action  of  the  syphon  from  the  accumulative  pressure 
of  air.  The  idea  of  making  the  water,  as  it  passed 
away,  the  motive  power  to  remove  the  inconvenience 
occasioned  by  its  own  course  through  the  syphon, 
although  very  simple,  is,  at  the  same  time,  not  the  less 
interesting. 

"The  Wigtonshire  Free  Press,  of  the  13th  Sep- 
tember, 1853,  describes  the  successful  use  of  a  syphon 
for  the  drainage  of  Culhorn  loch,  the  property  of  the 
Earl  of  Stair.  It  was  found,  in  the  commencement, 
after  working  thirty  hours,  that  air  had  been  gradually 
lodging  near  the  summit,  and  finally  cut  off  the  con- 
nection and  stopped  the  discharge.  This  was  calculated 

(167) 


168  SYPHON   DRAINAGE. 

upon,  and  to  overcome  this  evil,  two  air-pumps,  three 
inches  diameter,  ten-inch  strokes,  and  twenty  strokes 
per  minute,  were  attached,  to  draw  off  the  air  as  it 
lodged.  A  small  water-wheel,  to  work  these  pumps, 
was  placed  at  the  lower  end  of  the  syphon,  to  be  driven 
by  the  water  as  discharged.  The  pumps  are  connected 
with  the  syphon  by  a  one  and  a  quarter  inch  lead  pipe, 
connected  near  the  summit  level  at  a  point  where,  on 
an  experimental  glass  model,  the  air  seemed  to  lodge ; 
and  this  contrivance  has  been  so  far  successful.  The 
wheel  has  gone  on  working  night  and  day,  the  pumps 
drawing  air  when  there  is  any,  or  if  not,  water,  till  the 
loch  is  now  lowered  nine  feet  under  its  former  level. 
It  might  be  drawn  lower  still,  but  much  difficulty  has 
arisen  from  the  sludge  pressing  in  towards  the  mouth 
of  the  syphon,  and  from  the  whole  bottom  of  the  loch 
consisting  of  a  great  depth  of  an  impalpable  sludge, 
which  must  take  some  time  to  consolidate  and  become 
workable.  The  syphon  referred  to  is  eight  hundred 
and  eighty  yards,  or  half  a  mile  long,  and  is  seven 
inches  in  diameter.  The  highest  part  of  the  syphon  is 
twenty-one  feet  above  the  present  surface  of  the  loch, 
and  the  longest  limb  of  the  syphon  is  ten  feet  under  the 
level  of  the  water,  giving  ten  feet  of  fall.  The  dis- 
charge of  the  water,  at  the  present  time,  is  about  two 
hundred  gallons  per  minute;  but  at  first,  when  the 
loch  was  at  its  original  height,  and  the  fall  greater,  of 
course  the  discharge  was  much  more.  The  main  part 
of  the  syphon  consists  of  cast-iron  pipes,  five-eighths  of 
an  inch  thick,  with  spigot  and  faucet  joints  very  care- 
fully joined  and  made  air-tight  with  lead.  The  con- 
tract expense  of  the  iron  pipe  laid,  complete,  was  7s. 
6d.  per  yard."  (About  180  cents.) 


DEEP   DRAINAGE   QUESTION.  169 

On  the  subject  of  the  sub-surface  line  of  moisture,  and 
the  deep  drainage  question,  discussed  in  the  concluding 
pages  of  Chapter  IV.,  the  following  remarks  of  Mr.  J. 
Bailey  Denton,  well  merit  attention : 

"  If  land  be  drained  say  four  feet  deep,  gravity  takes 
all  water  foiling  on  the  surface  down  to  the  depth  of 
the  drains,  which  establish,  as  well  as  maintain  in  clay 
soils,  a  water  level  at  that  depth.  In  porous  soils,  the 
inclination  of  the  surface  becomes  an  element  in  main- 
taining the  water  level  founded  by  the  drainage.  But 
under  all  circumstances  of  soil,  it  is  believed  that  a  line 
of  moisture,  in  deeply -drained  land,  exists  above  the 
line  of  water  level  from  which  the  roots  of  vegetation 
derive  their  healthy  support  of  water.  Whether  this 
line  of  moisture  really  exists  as  believed,  and  if  it  ex- 
ists, whether  it  arises  from  suction,  absorption,  or  capil- 
lary attraction,  remains  for  later  philosophers  to  deter- 
mine. It  is  a  very  important  question  ;  for  if  the  line 
of  moisture  sustained  by  the  water  level  be  identical 
with  the  surface  of  the  ground,  then  evaporation  will 
take  effect  upon  it,  and  the  land  remains  as  cold  as  ever. 
That  a  water  level  does  exist  in  soils,  acting,  when  near 
the  surface,  most  prejudicially  to  healthy  vegetation, 
there  can  be  no  doubt,  and  I  will  give  an  instance :  It 
fell  to  my  lot  to  investigate  the  valley  of  the  Test,  for 
the  purpose  of  drainage,  during  one  of  the  great  wind- 
storms last  year,  and  several  trees  were  blown  down. 
When  the  base  of  their  roots  became  exposed  to  view, 
they  presented  as  even  a  surface  as  the  table  you  have 
lunched  off;  and  observing  that  some  of  the  trees  had 
a  deeper  quantity  of  earth  attached  to  them  than 
others,  I  became  interested,  and  found,  on  examination, 
that  acccording  to  the  height  of  the  ground  in  which 

8 


170  COST   OF  DRAINAGE. 

the  several  trees  had  grown  above  a  common  datum, 
so  was  the  depth  of  the  soil  capsized  with  the  tree. 
Thus,  if  a  tree  which  had  four  feet  of  soil  attached,  was 
compared  with  the  tree  which  had  only  three  feet,  it 
was  found  that  the  ground  in  which  the  former  tree 
stood,  was  exactly  one  foot  higher  than  the  ground 
of  the  last."* 

Upon  the  subject  of  the  cost  of  draining  land,  it  is 
scarcely  practicable  to  give  information  which,  to  any 
useful  extent,  is  of  value  to  the  reader  in  a  work  of 
this  description.  Because  so  many  considerations,  of 
such  very  different  bearing  in  various  localities,  enter 
into  the  estimate  of  cost,  that  one  or  other  of  them 
may  cause  the  most  reliable  data  for  one  locality  to  be 
inapplicable  to  another.  The  price  of  labor,  the  kind 
of  material  employed,  the  expense  of  carriage,  where, 
for  want  of  suitable  material,  it  has  to  be  transported, 
the  nature  of  the  soil  and  subsoil,  all  influence  the 
question  of  cost  considerably.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
kind  of  material  indicated  in  the  preceding  pages  that 
is  most  available,  and  its  value,  and  the  price  of  labor 
in  his  own  neighborhood,  being  well  known  to  every 
person,  it  has  been  thought  that  the  best  assistance  that 
can  be  given  to  enable  the  reader  to  form  an  estimate 
of  any  drainage  operations  he  may  contemplate,  is  to 
give  some  information  as  to  the  time  in  which  a  certain 
amount  of  drainage  work  has  been  done,  from  which  an 
estimate  may  be  made,  making  allowance  for  different 
soils,  of  what  any  given  extent  of  work  would  occupy, 
and  also  some  short  extracts  on  the  subject  of  cost  from 
reliable  statements  by  gentlemen  who  have  given  the 
results  of  their  experience. 

*  Gardeners'  Chronicle,  August  13,  1853. 


COST  OF  DRAINAGE.  171 

From  the  less  labor  with  which  ground  is  worked  in 
spring,  than  when  hard  from  the  summer's  heat,  the 
cutting  of  drainage  is  less  expensive  in  spring  than  in 
autumn.  A  correspondent  of  the  Ohio  Farmer  states 
that  he  cut,  in  August,  one  hundred  and  sixteen  rods 
of  drains,  eighteen  inches  deep,  and  the  same  width, 
which  cost  him,  cut  with  the  spade  and  shovel,  nineteen 
cents  a  rod,  in  swamp  sour-grass  land,  counting  nothing 
for  boarding  or  the  use  of  the  team.  But  in  March,  he 
cut  twenty  rods  more,  in  the  same  way,  which  cost  ten 
cents  a  rod  only. 

The  following  is  an  account  of  the  result  of  a  drain- 
ing match  instituted  by  the  Hertfordshire  Agricultural 
Society  in  England,  that  took  place  in  July,  1853,  which 
shows  the  quantity  of  work  done  in  a  given  time: 

"  The  field  selected  for  the  trial  was  on  the  margin 
of  the  London  basin,  and  showed  not  only  a  forbidding 
subsoil  to  the  drainer,  but  a  badly-farmed  and  repul- 
sive surface  to  the  visitor,  calling  out  not  only  for  deep 
draining,  but  deep  cultivation  and  generous  treatment 
from  the  tenant.  With  the  stiff  yellow  clay,  was  to  be 
observed  stones,  gravel,  and  veins  of  sand,  indicating 
diluvium  of  the  plastic  and  London  clays,  in  proximity 
to  the  chalk  on  which  it  rests.  The  drainers  had, 
therefore,  a  diversity  of  soil  to  work  upon,  and  this  fact 
will  explain  why  some  of  the  shorter  were  esteemed 
more  meritorious  than  the  longer  lengths.  There 
were  fifty-one  men  in  the  drains,  consisting  of  seven- 
teen gangs  of  three  each.  There  were  eight  competi- 
tors for  pipe  laying.  The  time  devoted  to  the  cutting  was 
five  hours.  The  cutters  worked  in  gangs  of  three  men 
each.  The  first  prize  was  given  for  a  length  of  one 
hundred  and  eight  feet,  cut  four  feet  deep  for  two-inch 


172  COST  OF  DRAINAGE. 

pipes,  and  the  opening  at  top  was  twelve  inches.  The 
second  prize,  for  eighty -four  feet  length  (stony),  with  a 
twelve-inch  opening.  The  third  prize  for  fifty-nine  feet 
length  (very  stony),  with  eleven  and  a  quarter  to  eleven 
and  a  half  inch  opening.  The  fourth  prize  for  one 
hundred  and  sixteen  feet  length,  with  thirteen-inch 
opening."* 

The  cost  of  wood  drains  is  alluded  to  in  page  88  of 
this  volume. 

In  the  transactions  of  the  New  York  State  Agricul- 
cultural  Society  for  1853,  is  a  statement  by  a  Mr.  H. 
Gr.  Foot,  of  the  expense  of  draining  done  upon  his  farm 
in  Canton,  of  which  he  had  done  about  five  hundred 
rods,  including  open  and  stone  drains.  He  says  one 
man,  in  early  spring,  will  throw  out  from  eight  to 
twelve  rods  a  day  of  ditch,  depending  upon  the  depth 
required ;  if  for  covered  drain,  at  a  cost  of  eight  cents 
to  one  shilling  per  rod.  The  drains  varied  from  two  to 
three  feet  deep,  and  were  filled  to  one  foot  of  the  sur- 
face with  cobble-stones,  covered  with  pine  slabs  and 
turf  placed  with  sod  downwards.  He  considers  the 
expense  of  filling  "  somewhat  more  expensive  than  the 
digging,"  depending  partly  on  the  distance  the  stones 
have  to  be  drawn. 

In  draining  with  tile,  in  many  parts  of  New  York 
and  New  Jersey,  ten  to  twelve  cents  has  been  about  the 
price  paid  for  cutting  drains ;  and  tiles  vary  in  price, 
according  to  the  size,  from  ten  dollars  to  twenty  dollars 
per  thousand,  the  cheapest  being  large  enough  for  the 
small  drains  in  most  situations.  The  difference  of  price 
arises  from  the  size,  and  from  some  being  made  with 
soles  and  some  without  them. 

*  Gardeners'  Chronicle,  August  6, 1853. 


COTGKEAVE'S  DRAINING  PLOUGH.  173 

Cotg reaves  Plough  for  Tile  Draining. — In  the  Trans- 
actions of  the  American  Institute  of  the  City  of  New- 
York  for  1851,  is  contained  the  following  extract  from 
the  London  Farmers'  Magazine,  of  a  mode  of  cutting 
for  and  laying  tiles,  which,  as  the  demand  for  cheap 
modes  of  drainage  increases,  may  at  no  distant  period 
be  made  available  here.  It  is  open  to  some  objections, 
but  where  extensive  works  were  necessary,  these  would 
probably  be  thought  incomparative  to  its  advantages : 

"  Mr.  Cotgreave,  of  the  Kake  Farm,  near  Eccleston, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Chester,  has  at  length  vindi- 
cated his  county,  long  stigmatized  as  the  most  back- 
ward of  all  English  counties  in  adopting  the  improve- 
ments of  the  age,  in  every  thing  which  relates  to  the 
amelioration  of  the  soil.  By  proper  drainage,  the  clay 
farms  will  become  very  productive,  and  now  it  can  be 
executed  for  less  than  half  cost.  The  Marquis  of  West- 
minster, who  is  extensively  engaged  in  draining  his 
estates,  and  other  eminent  agriculturists  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, approve  Mr.  Cotgreave's  ingenious  invention. 
Mr.  Cotgreave's  principle  consists  of  a  series  of  ploughs 
derived  from  the  carpenters'  plane  ;  with  the  exception 
of  the  main  drains,  all  the  work,  even  to  the  obtain- 
ing the  perfect  level  of  the  drain,  is  performed  by  the 
plough  plane.  Mr.  Cotgreave  has  so  adapted  his  plough 
that  with  four  horses  he  can  throw  out  a  drain  from 
four  to  five  feet  deep.  The  saving  of  time  is  another 
material  object.  The  work  by  this  process  is  almost 
incredibly  expeditious,  and  very  little  damage  is  done 
to  the  surface;  indeed,  in  grass  lands  a  heavy  roller 
will  repair  all  damages.  The  cost  of  workmanship  is 
half  the  price  of  manual  labor  on  the  present  system, 
and  the  time  occupied  one-tenth,  while  the  work,  to  say 


174  COTGREAVE'S  DRAINING  PLOUGH. 

the   very  least,    is   as  efficiently   and    durably   per- 
formed. 

"  The  working  of  the  plough  plane  many  will  doubt. 
We  did  so;  but  we  saw  and  were  convinced  of  its 
powers  and  efficiency.  All  who  have  witnessed  the 
operation  of  it  are  unanimous  in  their  approbation  of 
the  plan  and  their  conviction  of  its  full  and  complete 
success. 

"  Ten  men  and  four  horses  constitute  the  staff.  With- 
out distressing  either  men  or  horses,  Mr.  Cotgreave  com- 
mences draining  two  statute  acres — 4,840  square  yards, 
or  43,560  square  feet,  each — in  the  morning,  and  final- 
ly completes,  that  is,  cuts  the  drains  (including  the 
main  drain),  lays  the  pipe,  fills  in  and  makes  good  the 
surface  of  one  statute  acre,  and  half-prepares  the  sec- 
ond to  be  ready  for  work  the  next  day.  These  plough 
planes  have  regulators,  which  are  screws,  and  by  which 
the  plane  can  be  made  to  shave  two,  four,  five,  or  six 
inches  thick.  When  a  stone  or  other  obstruction  is  in 
the  way,  the  coulter  of  the  plough  plane  protects  the 
share,  and  a  hooked  instrument  with  a  lever  is  used  to 
extract  it  before  the  plough  comes  back  again.  One  of 
its  great  recommendations  is,  that  it  is  adapted  to  every 
variety  and  condition  of  soil— can  be  worked  almost 
independently  of  the  weather  unless  the  ground  be  too 
deeply  frozen.  In  fact,  those  who  have  witnessed  the 
plough  at  work  are  at  a  loss  which  most  to  admire,  the 
absence  of  complexity  in  the  contrivance  or  the  ra- 
pidity and  perfect  success  of  the  operation.  The  land 
owner  ought  always  to  have  the  pipes  of  the  mains  and 
the  tributaries  on  the  field  ready  to  be  laid  down.  Cot- 
greave begins  the  work  with  the  spade  and  completes 
the  mains  before  he  begins  the  tributaries;  these  he 


COTGREAVE:S  DRAINING  PLOUGH.  175 

commences  by  casting  out  by  the  plough  it  sod  six 
inches  wide,  on  the  left  side  of  the  intended  drain  over 
the  two  acres.  This  is  an  immediate  service  in  wet  land, 
for  that  immediately  begins  to  drain  off.  He  then  re- 
turns to  the  first  acre  and  runs  his  plough  plane,  casts 
out  the  soil  and  subsoil  on  the  right  hand  of  the  drains. 
In  four  drafts  he  cuts  down  to  eighteen  inches  deep  by 
six  inches  wide  :  the  first  shave  being  six  inches,  the 
last  three  four  inches  each.  He  then  takes  another 
plough  which  cuts  six  inches  deep  by  two  wide ;  he 
then  lays  the  pipes  by  threading  them  on  a  half-inch 
iron  bar,  one  end  of  which  trails  in  the  drain.  The  ra- 
pidity and  perfectness  with  which  the  pipes  are  then 
laid  is  surprising.  A  man  follows  with  a  sort  of  pad- 
dle, with  which  he  completely  adjusts  the  pipes,  and 
supplies  the  place  of  damaged  pipes  with  sound  ones. 
The  drain  is  now  ready  for  filling  in,  which  is  rapidly 
done,  and  then  the  whole  clod,  first  turned  up  in  al- 
most one  entire  piece,  is  rolled  on  to  its  bed.  We  esti- 
mate the  benefit  of  Cotgreave's  plan  to  be  a  saving  of 
one-half  the  cost,  and  nine-tenths  of  the  time  hitherto  re- 
quired. 

The  cutting  of  main  drains,  when  done  by  contract, 
is  sometimes  paid  for  by  the  running  rod  of  a  given 
width  and  depth,  and  sometimes  by  the  quantity  of 
earth  removed.  In  the  latter  case,  as  well  as  for  ascer- 
taining the  quantity  of  stones  or  other  filling  material, 
necessary  to  be  prepared,  the  cubic  contents  of  cuttings 
require  to  be  known.  A  set  of  Tables  applicable  to  those 
purposes  is  added,  which  will  save  much  trouble  in  cal- 
culations. 


176  SYPHON   DRAINAGE,    ETC. 

TO    MEASURE    THE    SOLID    CONTEXTS    OF    DRAINS  OR 
DITCHES. 

Rule. — Take  the  width  at  the  top  and  bottom,  add 
these  together,  their  sum  divided  by  2  Avill  give  the 
mean  width ;  then  multiply  the  width,  perpendicular 
height,  and  length  together  ;  their  product,  divided  by 
27,  the  number  of  square  feet  in  a  cubic  yard,  (the  di- 
mensions being  taken  in  feet  and  inches, )  will  give  the 
contents  in  cubic  yards,  &c. 

Ex. — How  many  cubic  yards  are  there  in  a  ditch  12 
yards  long,  7  feet  wide  at  the  top,  2  feet  at  the  bottom, 
and  5  feet  deep  ? 

120  yards  equal  to  360  feet :  mean  width  4  feet  6  inches. 

Feet.  In. 
360    0 
4     6 


1440    0 
180    0    0 

1620 
5 


27)8100 

••  -    •••"-- 

300  cubic  yards.     Answer. 

TO  FIND  THE  CONTENTS  FROM  THE  TABLE. 

Find  the  length  in  the  left  hand  column,  the  depth 
and  width  in  one  of  the  columns  on  the  right  of  it ; 
then  under  the  depth  and  width,  and  opposite  to  the 
length,  are  the  contents  in  cubic  yards,  &c. 


177 


Length. 

Depth  2£  feel, 
mean  width  1  ft.  10  in. 

Depth  3  feet, 
mean  width  1  ft.  10  in. 

Depth  3J  feet, 
mean  width  2  ft. 

Yds. 

n. 

Yds. 

Ft. 

n.  12th 

Yds. 

Ft. 

n.!2th. 

Yds. 

Ft. 

In.  12th 

l 

0 

4 

7 

5 

6 

7 

2 

9 

6 

11 

0 

14 

1 

13 

9 

16 

6 

21 

2 

1 

0 

6 

1 

6 

0 

1 

15 

3 

1 

14 

3 

1 

22 

6 

2 

9 

4 

2 

1 

\ 
0 

2 

12 

0 

3 

3 

5 

2 

14 

9 

3 

1 

6 

3 

24 

6 

3 

1 

6 

3 

18 

0 

4 

18 

7 

3 

15 

3 

4 

7 

6 

5 

12 

8 

4 

2 

0 

4 

24 

0 

G 

6 

9 

4 

15 

9 

5 

13 

6 

7 

0 

10 

5 

2 

6 

6 

3 

0 

7 

21 

20 

10 

5 

12 

6 

0 

15 

15 

40 

20 

10 

24 

12 

0 

31 

3 

GO 

30 

15 

36 

18 

0 

46 

18 

80 

40 

20 

48 

24 

0 

62 

6 

100 

50 

25 

61 

3 

0 

77 

21 

200 

101 

23 

122 

6 

0 

155 

15 

400 

203 

19 

244 

12 

0 

311 

3 

800 

407 

11 

488 

24 

0 

622 

6 

1000 

509 

7 

611 

3 

0 

777 

21 

s* 


178 


Length. 

Depth  4  feet 
mean  width  2ft. 

Depth  44  feet, 
mean  width  2  I't. 

Depth  5  feet, 
mean  width  2  ft.  3  in. 

Yds. 

Ft. 

Yds. 

Ft. 

In.l2th. 

Yds. 

Ft 

In.  12th. 

Yds. 

Ft. 

In.  12th 

1 

8 

9 

11 

3 

2 

16 

18 

22 

6 

1 

24 

1 

0 

1 

6 

9 

2 

1 

21 

2 

0 

2 

13 

6 

3 

2 

18 

3 

3 

20 

3 

4 

3 

15 

4 

5 

0 

0 

5 

4 

12 

5 

6 

6 

9 

6 

5 

9 

6 

7 

13 

6 

7 

6 

6 

7 

8 

20 

3 

8 

7 

3 

8 

10 

0 

0 

9 

8 

0 

9 

11 

6 

9 

10 

8 

24 

10 

12 

13 

6 

20 

17 

21 

20 

25 

40 

35 

15 

40 

50 

60 

53 

9 

60 

75 

80 

71 

3 

80 

100 

100 

88 

24 

100 

125 

200 

177 

21 

200 

250 

400 

355 

15 

400 

500 

800 

711 

3 

800 

1000 

1000 

888 

24 

1000 

1250 

179 


Length. 

Depth  5  feet, 
mean  width  2  feet  6  in. 

Depth  4  feet, 
mean  width  3  ft.  3  in. 

Depth  4£  feet, 
mean  width  3  ft.  6  in. 

Yds. 

Ft. 

Yds. 

Ft. 

In.  12th. 

Yds. 

Ft. 

In.  12th. 

Yds. 

Ft. 

In.l2th 

1 

12 

6 

13 

15 

9 

2 

25 

0 

26 

1 

4 

6 

1 

1 

10 

6 

1 

12 

1 

20 

3 

2 

2 

21 

0 

2 

24 

3 

13 

6 

3 

4 

4 

6 

4 

9 

5 

6 

9 

4 

5 

15 

0 

5 

21 

7 

0 

0 

5 

6 

25 

6 

7 

6 

8 

20 

3 

6 

8 

9 

0 

8 

18 

10 

13 

6 

Z 

9 

19 

6 

10 

3 

12 

6 

9 

8 

11 

3 

0 

11 

15 

14 

0 

0 

9 

12 

13 

6 

13 

0 

15 

20 

3 

10 

13 

24 

0 

14 

12 

17 

13 

6 

20 

27 

21 

0 

28 

24 

35 

0 

0 

40 

55 

15 

0 

57 

21 

70 

0 

0 

60 

83 

9 

86 

18 

105 

0 

0 

80 

111 

3 

115 

15 

140 

100 

138 

24 

144 

12 

175 

200 

277 

21 

288 

24 

350 

400 

555 

15 

577 

21 

700 

800 

1111 

3 

1155 

15 

1400 

1000 

1388 

24 

1444 

12 

1750 

180 


Length. 

Depth  4£  feet, 
mean  width  3  ft.  9  in. 

Depth  4i  feet, 
mean  width  4  feet. 

Depth  4£  feet, 
mean  width  4ft.  6  in. 

Yds. 

Ft. 

Yds. 

Ft. 

In.  12th 

Yds. 

Ft. 

In.  12th. 

Yds. 

Ft. 

In  .12th 

. 

1 

0 

16 

10     6 

18 

0 

20 

3 

2 

1 

6 

9     0 

1 

9 

1 

13 

6 

1 

1 

23 

7     6 

2 

0 

2 

6 

9 

2 

3 

20 

3    0 

4 

4 

13 

6 

3 

5 

16 

10     6 

6 

6 

20 

3 

4 

7 

13 

6     0 

8 

9 

0 

0 

5 

9 

10 

1     6 

10 

11 

6 

9 

6 

11 

6 

9     0 

12 

13 

13 

6 

| 

13 

3 

4     6 

14 

15 

20 

3 

8 

15 

0 

0    0 

16 

18 

0 

0 

9 

16 

23 

7     6 

18 

20 

6 

9 

10 

18 

20 

3    0 

20 

22 

13 

6 

20 

37 

13 

6     0 

40 

45 

0 

0 

40 

75 

0 

0 

80 

90 

60 

112 

13 

6 

120 

135 

80 

150 

0 

0 

160 

180 

100 

187 

13 

6 

200 

225 

200 

375 

0 

0 

400 

450 

400 

750 

0 

0 

800 

900 

800 

1500 

0 

0 

1600 

1800 

1000 

1875 

0 

0 

2000 

2250 

181 


Length. 

Depth  5  feet, 
mean  width  4  feet. 

Depth  5  feet, 
mean  width  4  ft.  3  in. 

Depth  5  feet, 
mean  width  4ft.  6  in. 

Yds. 

Y 

Yds. 

Ft. 

n.  12th. 

Yds. 

Ft. 

n.  12th 

Yds. 

Ft. 

In.l2th 

1 

0 

20 

0 

21 

3 

0 

22 

6 

2 

1 

13 

1 

15 

6 

1 

18 

0 

1 

2 

6 

2 

9 

9 

2 

13 

6 

2 
3 

4 
6 

12 

18 

4 

7 

19 
2 

6 
3 

5 

7 

0 
13 

0 
6 

4 

8 

24 

9 

12 

0 

10 

0 

0 

5 

11 

3 

11 

21 

9 

12 

13 

6 

6 

13 

9 

14 

4 

6 

15 

0 

0 

7 

15 

15 

16 

14 

3 

17 

13 

6 

8 

17 

21 

18 

24 

0 

20 

0 

0 

9 

20 

0 

21 

6 

9 

22 

13 

6 

10 

22 

6 

23 

16 

6 

25 

0 

0 

20 

44 

12 

47 

6 

0 

50 

40 

88 

24 

94 

12 

0 

100 

60 

133 

9 

141 

18 

0 

150 

80 

177 

21 

188 

24 

0 

200 

100 

222 

6 

23G 

3 

0 

250 

200 

444 

12 

472 

6 

0 

500 

400 

888 

24 

944 

12 

0 

1000 

800 

1777 

21 

1888 

24 

0 

2000 

1000 

2222 

6 

2361 

3 

0 

2500 

182 


Length. 

Depth  5  feel, 
mean  width  4  ft.  9  in. 

Depth  5  feet, 
mean  width  5  feet. 

Depth  5i  feet, 
mean  width  4ft.  6  in. 

Yds. 

Ft. 

Yds. 

Ft. 

In.  12th. 

Yds. 

Ft. 

In.  12th. 

|  Yds. 

It. 

In.l2th 

1 

0 

23 

9 

0 

25 

0 

0 

24 

9 

2 

1 

20 

6 

1 

23 

1 

22 

6 

1 

2 

17 

3 

2 

21 

2 

20 

3 

2 

5 

7 

6 

5 

15 

5 

13 

6 

3 

7 

24 

9 

8 

9 

8 

6 

9 

4 

10 

15 

0 

11 

3 

11 

0 

^0 

5 

13 

5 

3 

13 

24 

13 

20 

3 

6 

15 

22 

6 

16 

18 

16 

13 

6 

7 

18 

12 

9 

19 

12 

19 

6 

9 

8 

21 

3 

0 

22 

6 

22 

0 

0 

9 

23 

20 

3 

25 

0 

24 

20 

3 

10 

26 

10 

6 

27 

21 

27 

13 

6 

20 

52 

21 

0 

55 

15 

55 

0 

0 

40 

105 

15 

0 

111 

3 

110 

0 

0 

60 

158 

9 

0 

166 

18 

165 

80 

211 

3 

222 

6 

220 

100 

263 

24 

277 

21 

275 

200 

527 

21 

555 

15 

550 

400 

1055 

15 

1111 

3 

1100 

800 

2111 

3 

2222 

6 

2200 

1000 

2638 

24 

2777 

21 

2750 

183 


Length. 

Depth  5#  feet,                 Depth  5#  feet  , 
mean  width  4  ft.  9  in.         mean  width  5  feet. 

I 

Depth  6  feet, 
mean  width  4  feet 

Yds. 

Ft. 

Yds. 

Ft. 

In.  12th. 

Yds. 

Ft. 

In.  12th 

Yds. 

Ft. 

In.l2th 

1 

0 

26 

1     6 

1 

0 

6 

24 

2 

1 

25 

3    0 

2 

1 

0 

1 

21 

1 

2 

24 

4    6 

3 

1 

6 

2 

18 

2 

5 

21 

9     0 

6 

3 

0 

5 

9 

3 

8 

19 

1     6 

9 

4 

6 

8 

0 

4 

11 

16 

6    0 

12 

6 

0 

10 

18 

5 

14 

13 

10    6 

15 

7 

6 

13 

9 

6 

17 

11 

3    0 

18 

9 

0 

16 

0 

7 

20 

8 

7     6 

21 

10 

6 

18 

18 

8 

23 

6 

0    0 

24 

12 

0 

21 

9 

9 

26 

3 

4    6 

27 

13 

6 

24 

0 

10 

29 

0 

9     0 

30 

15 

0 

26 

18 

20 

58 

1 

6    0 

61 

3 

0 

53 

9 

40 

116 

3 

0    0 

122 

6 

0 

106 

18 

60 

174 

4 

6    0 

183 

9 

0 

160 

0 

80 

232 

6 

0 

244 

12 

213 

9 

100 

290 

7 

6 

305 

15 

266 

18 

200 

580 

15 

0 

611 

3 

533 

9 

400 

1161 

3 

1222 

6 

1066 

18 

800 

2322 

6 

2444 

12 

2133 

9 

1000 

2902 

21 

3055 

15 

2666 

18 

184 


Length. 

Depth  6  feet, 
mean  width  4  ft.  3  in. 

Depth  6  feet, 
mean  width  4ft.  6  in. 

Depth  6  feet, 
mean  width  4  ft.  9  in 

Yds. 

Ft. 

Yds. 

Ft. 

In.  12th 

Yds. 

Ft. 

In.  12th. 

Yds. 

Ft. 

In.l2th 

1 

0 

25 

6 

1 

1 

1 

6 

2 

1 

24 

0 

2 

2 

3 

0 

1 

2 

22 

6 

3 

3 

4 

6 

2 

5 

18 

0 

6 

6 

9 

0 

3 

8 

13 

6 

9 

9 

13 

6 

4 

11 

9 

0 

12 

12 

18 

0 

5 

14 

4 

6 

15 

15 

22 

6 

6 

17 

0 

0 

18 

19 

0 

0 

7 

19 

22 

6 

21 

22 

4 

6 

8 

22 

18 

0 

24 

25 

9 

0 

9 

25 

13 

6 

27 

28 

13 

6 

10 

28 

9 

0 

30 

31 

18 

0 

20 

56 

18 

60 

63 

9 

0 

40 

113 

9 

120 

126 

18 

0 

60 

170 

0 

180 

190 

0 

0 

80 

226 

18 

240 

253 

9 

0 

100 

283 

9 

300 

316 

18 

0 

200 

566 

18 

600 

623 

9 

0 

400 

1133 

9 

1200 

1266 

18 

0 

800 

2266 

18 

2400 

2533 

9 

0 

1000 

2833 

9 

3000 

3166 

18 

0 

Length 
Yds. 

ft. 

Depth  6  feel, 
mean  width  5  feet. 

Depth  6  feet, 
ineun  width  5  ft.  3  in. 

Depth  6  feet, 
mean  width  5  ft.  6  in. 

Yds. 

Ft. 

In.  12th 

Yds. 

Ft. 

In.  12th. 

Yds. 

Ft. 

In.  12th 

1 

1 

3 

1 

4 

6 

1 

6 

2 

2 

6 

2 

9 

0 

2 

12 

1 

3 

9 

3 

13 

6 

3 

18 

2 

6 

18 

7 

0 

0 

7 

9 

a 

10 

0 

10 

13 

6 

11 

0 

4 

13 

9 

|4 

0 

0 

I 
14 

18 

5 

16 

18 

17 

13 

6 

18 

9 

6 

20 

0 

21 

0 

0 

22 

0 

7 

23 

9 

24 

13 

6 

25 

18 

8 

26 

18 

28 

0 

0 

29 

9 

9 

30 

0 

31 

13 

6 

33 

0 

10 

* 

40 

33 
66 
•    133 

9 

18 
9 

35 
70 
140 

0 

0 

36 
73 
146 

18 
9 
18 

60 

80 

200 
266 

0 

18 

210 
280 

220 
293 

0 
9 

100 

333 

9 

350 

366 

18 

200 

666 

18 

700 

733 

9 

400 

1333 

9 

1400 

1466 

18 

800 

2666 

18 

2800 

2933 

9 

1000 

3333 

9 

3500 

3666 

18 

186 


Length. 

Depth  6  feet 
mean  width  5  ri.  9  in. 

Depth  6  feet, 
mean  width  6  ft. 

Yds. 

Ft 

Yds 

Ft. 

In.l2th. 

Yds. 

Ft 

In.  12th. 

1 

1 

7 

6 

1 

9 

2 

2 

15 

0 

2 

18 

1 

3 

22 

6 

4 

2 

7 

18 

0 

8 

3 

11 

13 

6 

12 

4 

15 

9 

0 

16 

5 

19 

4 

6 

20 

6 

23 

0 

0 

24 

7 

26 

22 

6 

28 

8 

30 

18 

0 

32 

9 

34 

13 

6 

36 

10 

38 

9 

0 

40 

20 

76 

18 

0 

80 

40 

153 

9 

160 

60 

230 

0 

240 

80 

306 

10 

320 

100 

383 

9 

400 

200 

766 

18 

800 

400 

1533 

9 

1600 

800 

3066 

18 

3200 

1000 

3833 

9 

4000 

INDEX. 


Anacharis  alsinastrum 165 

Boring  for  drainage 125 

Brush  or  bush  drain 88 

Bog  draining 122.  124 

Cotgreave's  plough  tile  draining v 173 

Coat  of  Drainage 70 

Conduits.    See  Ducts. 

Capillary  attraction 14 

Cutting 99 

Submains 106 

Tools 101,  107 

Distance  apart  of  drains 66,  70 

Direction  of  drains 49,  53 

Ditches,  table  of  cubic  contents 175 

Ducts,  building 130 

Joining  small  to  main 132 

Drainage,  principal  causes  for  its  necessity 29 

The  various  systems. 30 

Question  in  dispute  as  to  depth. 31 

Deep  drainage  system 34 

Drainage  of  boggy  land  caused  by  springs 38 

Of  clay  hill  side. 43;  46 

Of  land  around  gravelly  hills 4C 

Frequent  or  thorough  system 48 

Direction  of. 49 

Comparative  effect  across  and  along  ridges 51 

Position  of  mains 52 

Direction  of  small  drains ; .      53 

A  field  property  drained ...:..... 55 

(187) 


188  INDEX. 

Drainage,  fall  of 56.  133 

Diagram  for  inclined  planes 58 

Fall  on  level  ground 59 

Fall  at  mouth  of  main 60 

"  Drawing"  of 60 

Depth  of 60 

Distance  apart 66 

Surface 73 

Construction  of 76 

Swamp 128 

Dispute  between  deep  and  shallow  drainers  explained. . .  .31,  70,  169 

Drains,  different  kinds  described 82 

Triangular  stone 83 

Coupled  stone 83 

Double  tiled  main 84 

Inverted  main 84 

Small  drains  filled  with  stones 85 

Small  tile 85 

Tile  and  stone 86 

Brush  or  bush 88 

Slab 89 

Wooden  pipe 90 

Mole-plough 91 

Surface 92,  122 

Sheep 92,  120 

Peat  tile 110 

Stoppage  of 156 

Cutting 91 

by  Cotgreave's  plough 1 73 

Fig.  of  large  main  cutting 104 

Length  of  main 110 

Sod .' Ill 

Mole 112 

Flat- stone 117 

Shoulder  for  clay  land 119 

Bog 1 22,  124 

Examination  of  land 21 

Geological  do 23 

Ends  of  drains  to  protect 132 

Fluids,  laws  that  govern  them 12 

Fall  of  drain . .  ,56.  59,  60,  138 


INDEX.  189 

Filling  drains 142 

Bush  drains 153 

Frequent  drainage  system 48 

Field  properly  drained  on  frequent  system 55 

Level  of  water 14 

Leslie,  Professor,  on  capillary  attraction 19 

Levelling 77 

Low  land  drainage 128 

Materials  for  drainage 93 

Comparative  value 95 

Mole  drain  plough 113 

Fowler's  do 115 

Natural  laws  on  which  drainage  depends 11 

Outlet  of  drains 138 

To  protect 132 

Peat  tile  drain 110 

Position  of  main  drain 52 

Quicksands 132 

Question  as  to  shallow  and  deep  drains 30,  70,  169 

Sheep  drain 92, 120 

Sod  drain. Ill 

Spring?,  their  origin 24 

True  and  temporary 35 

Substrata,  their  position  on  slopes 28 

Shoulder  drain 1 19 

Slates 98 

Slab  drain 89 

Stone  drains 83 

Stoppage  of  drains  by  roots  of  trees 159 

By  weeds 162 

By  Mangold  Wurzel 164 

By  anacharis 165 

Syphon  drainage 1C7 

Surface  drain 92,  122 

Systems  of  drainage 30 

Deep 34 

Frequent 38 

Thorough 38 

Surface 73,92,122 

Tables  for  cubic  contents  of  drains 175 

Thorough  drainage  system 48 


190  INDEX. 

Tile-pipe 140 

Collars 141 

Tiles,  number  for  an  acre 96 

Tile  drain  cutting 110 

Do.  by  Cotgreave's  plough 173 

Laying 133 

Fig.  of  mode  of  laying 134 

Covering  tiles 135 

Joining  small  to  main 136 

Laying  small 139 

Fig.  small 140 

m    ,  (  101,  104,  107.  108,  109,  111,  112 

Tools  for  draining j          ^  m>  m>  m>  ^  m 

Water,  natural  laws  that  govern  it 12 

Sources  of. 11 

Passage  of,  under  ground 16 

Falling  on  hill  tops 17 

On  mountains 24 

Rise  of  by  capillary  attraction 19 

Wooden-pipe  drain 90 

Well  in  drain 104 

Digging 105 

Want  of  drainage  in  New  York  State 22 


OF  TH€ 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


Q 


AND 


drnamnrtal  Ijlantinj. 


MR.  MUNN  having  had  much  experience  in  laying  out  grounds  for 
gentlemen  in  New  York,  Connecticut,  Massachusetts,  and  in  other 
states,  offers  his  services  to  those  who  may  be  building 

Country  or  Suburban  Residences, 

or  who  wish  to  alter  and  improve  their  grounds. 

MR.  MUNN  has  an  extensive  acquaintance  with  the  Country  Villa 
Residences  and  Ornamental  Tlantations,  both  public  and  private,  . 


0f  <£i|irope  3$  of 


and  he  will  refer  to  gentlemen  for  whom  he  has  made  improvements 
on  an  extensive  scale,  as  well  as  to  others  whose  grounds  were  of  more 
limited  extent. 

RE  FERENCES; 

Hon.  Marshall  P.  Wilder,  Boston. 

Dr.  W.  D.  Brinokle,  Philadelphia. 

Hon.  Sam'l  Walker,  Roxhury,  Mass. 

Jos'h  S.  Cabot,  Esq.,  Salem,  President  of  the  Mass.  Horticultural  Society. 


Address,  Mr.  MUNN,  Box  3292,   Post  Office,  New  York,  or  at  the 
Publishers',  152  Fulton  Street. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY, 
BERKELEY 


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20m-l,'22 


YB 


§•2372 
W\ 


